1.Department of Science, Beijing Institute of Graphic Communication, Beijing 102600, China 2.Institute of Applied Micro-Nano Materials, School of Science, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing 100044, China
Fund Project:Project supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 11605012), the Project of Beijing Municipal Education Commission, China (Grant No. KM202010015008), and the Young Scientists Fund of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 51802014)
Received Date:23 February 2021
Accepted Date:14 April 2021
Available Online:07 June 2021
Published Online:20 August 2021
Abstract:CH3NH3PbI3 is one of the most promising candidates for high-performance hybrid organic-inorganic perovskite solar cells. The CH3NH3PbI3 single crystal and polycrystalline thin film exhibit the unique features of long carrier lifetimes and diffusion lengths, however, their carrier mobilities are in fact rather modest in a range from 1 cm2·V–1·s–1 to 100 cm2·V–1·s–1. Experimentally, the temperature dependence of mobility is described as T–1.3 to T–1.6 due to the acoustic phonon scattering. To be sure, the rotating CH3NH${}_3^+ $ cations are disadvantageous to the carrier transport and performance for CH3NH3PbI3 solar cells. The effect of the rotating CH3NH${}_3^+ $ cations on high-performance CH3NH3PbI3 solar cells remains an open question. The Gaussian 09 software has been utilized to optimize the geometrical structures of CH3NH3 dimer, trimer, tetramer, and pentamer in isolated state at the MP2 level with using the cc-PVTZ basis set. For CH3NH3 polymer, the mean distance between two centroids of neighboring CH3NH3 decreasing with the number of CH3NH3 is slightly smaller than the lattice constant 6.28 ? of tetragonal CH3NH3PbI3, which is advantageous to structural stability and higher structural order of inorganic [PbI3]– framework. It signifies that the long range order of electrically neutral CH3NH3 is easily formed for room-temperature CH3NH3PbI3. The total dipole moment linearly increases with the number of CH3NH3 for CH3NH3 polymer, and attains a large value 19.7 Debye for CH3NH3 pentamer, which may be the origin of strong polarization in CH3NH3PbI3 heterojunction. The molecular orbitals of five unpaired electrons for CH3NH3 pentamer are distributed around NH3-sides of five different CH3NH3 pentamers respectively, and these orbital energies are in a range from –4.4 eV to –3.2 eV. The unpaired electrons in CH3NH3 polymer have an electrostatic attraction on the CH3-side of neighboring CH3NH3, which is the key cause of forming the ordered CH3NH3 polymer. Hence it can be inferred that the orbital energies of unpaired electrons are getting closer when the longer range order of CH3NH3 are formed in room-temperature CH3NH3PbI3 through the interfacial electron injection. The vector field map of electrostatic potential (ESP) shows that CH3NH${}_3^+ $ has strong electrophilic character, and the NH3-side has a stronger electrophilic character than CH3-side, however, CH3NH3 monomer and polymer have weak electrophilic and nucleophilic character. Thus, the forming of CH3NH3 polymer at the CH3NH3PbI3 heterojunction leads the organic and inorganic portions to be decoupled, which can effectively reduce the anharmonic phonon modes. Under an applied electric field, the unpaired electrons in CH3NH3 pentamer can transfer along the C-N axis through the hopping mechanism. According to these results, we can draw three useful conclusions below. i) The electrons under an applied electric field are easily injected into the CH3NH3PbI3 material through the heterojunction, the CH3NH3 polymer is easily formed, and the unpaired electrons in polymer are transferred between two neighboring CH3NH3 through hopping mechanism. ii) The decoupling between organic CH3NH3 and inorganic [PbI3]– framework can effectively reduce the anharmonic phonon modes, which can lead the carrier scattering decrease and the efficiency of carrier separation and transport to improve; iii) The ordered CH3NH3 polymer at the CH3NH3PbI3 heterojunction can enhance the order of inorganic [PbI3]– framework. Our researches may help to further understand the origin of high power conversion efficiency (PCE) for hybrid organic-inorganic perovskite solar cells. Keywords:hybrid organic-inorganic perovskite/ solar cells/ first-principles calculation
优化的CH3NH3二聚体、三聚体、四聚体、五聚体中未配对电子的分子轨道能量如图2(a)所示, 可以看出, 在CH3NH3多聚体中未配对电子的能量范围随着CH3NH3数量增加而变大, 而未配对电子之间的能量差随着CH3NH3数量增加而减小. CH3NH3五聚体中五个未配对电子的分子轨道等值面图和轨道能量如图2(b)所示, 五个未配对电子的轨道分布在五个CH3NH3的NH3-端, 它们的轨道能量在–4.4 eV— –3.2 eV之间, 在五聚体外端的能量最高(在最右端), 从右向左能量依次递减(如图2(a)所示), 说明在CH3NH3之间的未配对电子更加稳定, 其他多聚体的未配对电子分布与五聚体的类似. 在CH3NH3多聚体中未配对电子对邻近CH3NH3的CH3-端有静电吸引, 这是形成有序CH3NH3多聚体的主要原因. 图 2 在MP2/Aug-cc-PVTZ水平下 (a)优化的CH3NH3多聚体未配对电子的分子轨道能, (b) 优化的CH3NH3五聚体的分子轨道等值面图和轨道能量, 红色和蓝色分别表示正相和负相 Figure2. (a) The molecular orbital energies of unpaired electrons for optimized CH3NH3 polymer, and (b) the molecular orbitals isosurface map and energies of unpaired electrons of optimized CH3NH3 pentamer at MP2/Aug-cc-PVTZ level. Red and blue colors correspond to positive and negative phases, respectively.
分子的静电势矢量场定义为静电势一阶导数的负值, CH3NH${}_3^+ $单体、CH3NH3单体、CH3NH3五聚体产生的静电势矢量场如图3所示, 其中红色箭头表示电场的方向, 红箭头越多表示在对应坐标处的电场强度越大, 蓝色的轮廓线表示范德瓦耳斯表面. 图3(a)和图3(b)显示CH3NH${}_3^+ $比CH3NH3产生的电场更强, 而范德瓦耳斯表面更小, 说明CH3NH${}_3^+ $具有更强的亲电性, 可以看出NH3-端比CH3-端有更强的亲电性, 而CH3NH3在范德瓦耳斯表面外面电场很弱, 说明它具有很弱的亲电性和亲核性. CH3NH3五聚体在范德瓦耳斯表面附近电场强度很小, 到其外面就基本减小为零, 意味着CH3NH3五聚体也具有很弱的亲电性和亲核性, 如图3(c)所示. 这些结果说明了CH3NH${}_3^+ $对碘离子有一个强的静电吸引力, 这导致了四方相的CH3NH3PbI3中无机框架的扭曲; 由于CH3NH3单体和多聚体具有弱的亲电性和亲核性, 使得CH3NH3与无机框架退耦合, 无机框架的扭曲将减小, 这将有效地减少有机部分和无机部分之间非谐振声子的振动模式, 同时也有利于提高CH3NH3PbI3异质结中无机[PbI3]–框架的载流子传输效率, 而一般在实验上测量的是本征CH3NH3PbI3材料中的载流子迁移率, 而CH3NH3PbI3异质结中有电子注入时载流子的迁移率在实验上还没有测量. 图 3 在MP2/Aug-cc-PVTZ水平下优化的 (a) CH3NH${}_3^+ $, (b) CH3NH3, (c) CH3NH3五聚体的静电势矢量场图, 蓝色的轮廓线表示范德瓦耳斯表面, 红色的箭头表示对应坐标处的电场 Figure3. Vector field map of ESP for optimized (a) CH3NH${}_3^+ $, (b) CH3NH3, and (c) CH3NH3 pentamer at MP2/Aug-cc-PVTZ level. The blue contour line and red arrow represent van der Waals surface and electric field at corresponding position, respectively.
图3(c)中显示两个邻近的CH3NH3之间的电场是很弱的, 可以通过RDG方法图形化定量研究CH3NH3之间的弱相互作用, 如图4所示. 发现两个邻近的CH3NH3之间相互作用属于范德瓦耳斯相互作用, 它们的相互作用还达不到氢键相互作用的强度, 在相互作用区域(绿色区域)的电子密度是很小的, 意味着相邻的CH3NH3之间是比较弱的相互吸引力. 图 4 在MP2/Aug-cc-PVTZ水平下, 在优化的CH3NH3五聚体中通过RDG方法图形化CH3NH3之间的相互作用 Figure4. Weak interaction between two adjacent CH3NH3 in optimized CH3NH3 pentamer at MP2/Aug-cc-PVTZ level is visualized by RDG method.
在电场作用下, 在无机笼中电中性的CH3NH3群很容易沿着CH3NH3的C-N轴取向, 在没有电场的情况下对CH3NH3多聚体进行几何结构优化时也容易取向, 这说明沿着C-N轴的几何结构是稳定的, 尽管它们的相互作用比较弱. CH3NH3五聚体中CH3NH3中未配对电子在外加电场作用下沿着C-N轴发生转移, 如图5所示. 分别沿x-轴正向和负向施加电场, 发现转移电子的数量均是随着电场强度增加而增加; 电子转移随着施加电场强度的增强具有非线性特征, 当施加电场达到一定数值后NH3-端的未配对电子发生转移, 电子的转移是通过跃迁机制完成的; 沿x-轴正向施加电场电子的转移效率更高, 从图5可以看出, 在同样的最大电场强度(0.0160 a.u.)作用下, 正向电场可以达到四个未配对电子转移, 而负向电场只能有三个未配对电子转移, 这主要是由CH3NH3的CH3-端和NH3-端的不同特性引起的. 这也导致电子通过异质结注入和退出CH3NH3PbI3材料的速率是不同的, 异质结处注入和退出的电子速率不同极可能与实际器件测量产生 “迟滞现象”是相关联的, 这需要进一步理论和实验的探索. 图 5 (a)优化的CH3NH3几何构型; 施加沿x-轴 (b) 正向和 (c) 负向的不同外电场作用下的电荷位移曲线 Figure5. (a) Optimized configuration of CH3NH3 pentamer; charge displacement curve under external electric field along the (b) positive and (c) negative x-axis with different strengths of electric field.