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城市化背景下食物系统耦合研究的理论框架及优先方向

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马恩朴,1, 蔡建明,2,3, 郭华4, 林静2, 廖柳文5, 韩燕2,31.湖南师范大学地理科学学院,长沙 410081
2.中国科学院地理科学与资源研究所,北京 100101
3.中国科学院大学,北京 100049
4.天津市农业科学院农村经济与区划研究所,天津 300192
5.长沙学院,长沙 410022

Theoretical framework and research priorities on food system couplings in an urbanization context

MA Enpu,1, CAI Jianming,2,3, GUO Hua4, LIN Jing2, LIAO Liuwen5, HAN Yan2,31. School of Geographic Sciences, Hunan Normal University, Changsha 410081, China
2. Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, CAS, Beijing 100101, China
3. University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
4. Tianjin Institute of Rural Economy and Zoning Study, Tianjin Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Tianjin 300192, China
5. Changsha University, Changsha 410022, China

通讯作者: 蔡建明(1961-), 男, 山西临猗人, 研究员, 博士生导师, 主要从事城市可持续性与城市发展战略、都市农业与城乡互动发展和城乡旅游发展等研究。E-mail: caijm@igsnrr.ac.cn

收稿日期:2020-05-11修回日期:2021-04-20
基金资助:国家自然科学基金项目(71734001)
国家自然科学基金项目(41971224)


Received:2020-05-11Revised:2021-04-20
Fund supported: National Natural Science Foundation of China(71734001)
National Natural Science Foundation of China(41971224)

作者简介 About authors
马恩朴(1989-), 男, 贵州毕节人, 博士, 讲师, 研究方向为人地系统耦合、食物系统与城乡可持续发展。E-mail: maenpu2015@sina.com








摘要
受城市化、地域功能分化、生产要素优化配置和交通网络快速扩展等因素影响,区域之间资源要素的流动已成为区域可持续发展的内在需求。在这种背景下,人类与地理环境互动模式的网络化就要求地理学研究采取全程耦合范式,即将区域内部、区域与周边区域、以及非邻接区域之间的人地互动同时纳入考虑。食物系统作为衔接乡村与城市、以及产地与全球消费市场的产业链和价值链,是开展人地系统近远程耦合研究的重要切入点。基于这种认识,本文在论证理论研究内在依据及外在条件的基础上,将食物系统的构成要素与远程耦合框架相结合,建立“城市化驱动下食物系统近远程耦合的理论框架”并论述该理论框架的具体内涵。以拓展理论框架中的前沿领域为基本导向并结合国家重大战略需求,本文进一步明确了食物系统耦合研究的基本问题和4个亟待突破的优先研究方向。其中,基本问题是食物域的格局特征、时空演化及其动力机制。4个优先方向则包括:耦合社会经济文化变迁与生物地球化学循环的供应链网络人地互动研究;食物系统近远程耦合效应及其调控策略研究;基于食物系统的城乡融合与长效脱贫机制研究;以及面向公共卫生安全的食物系统跨区域、多层次治理研究。本文最后设计了食物系统耦合研究的一般技术路径,研究结果可为进一步的案例实证提供理论支撑和研究思路参考。
关键词: 城市化;食物系统;近远程耦合;理论框架;优先议题

Abstract
Driven by urbanization, regional functional differentiation, optimal allocation of production factors, and rapid expansion of transportation networks, the flow of resources between regions has become a key impetus for regional sustainable development. Hence, the interaction networking between human beings and their natural environment requires a meta-coupling paradigm research from a geographic perspective, that is, to consider the human-nature interactions within the region, between the region and surrounding regions, and between non-adjacent regions simultaneously. As an industrial chain and value chain that connects rural areas and cities, as well as production areas and global consumer markets, the research on food system couplings is a good and important entry point for a better understanding the interactions and networking in the human-earth system. With this perspective in mind and aiming at demonstrating the theoretical study based on internal basis and external conditions, this paper combines the food system components with the tele-coupling framework to establish a "theoretical framework of local and tele-coupling of food systems driven by urbanization", and discusses the specific connotation of the theoretical framework. Taking the extension of the frontier fields in the theoretical framework as the basic guide and combining China's major strategic needs, the paper further identifies the basic issues for food system coupling research and four priority research directions that need to be breakthrough. Among them, the pattern characteristics, the spatio-temporal evolution and its driving mechanism of foodshed are the basic issues, while the four research priorities include: human-nature interaction research of the supply chain network coupling socio-economic and cultural changes and biogeochemical cycles; effects of the local and tele-coupling of food system and its regulatory strategies; the mechanism of urban-rural integration and long-term poverty alleviation based on food system; and cross-regional multi-level governance of food systems for public health and food security. A general technical methodology of the food system coupling research is designed at the end of the paper. The conceptual framework and methodology in this paper can provide theoretical guideline and enlightenment for further food system coupling research and other similar studies.
Keywords:urbanization;food system;local and tele-coupling;theoretical framework;priority issue


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本文引用格式
马恩朴, 蔡建明, 郭华, 林静, 廖柳文, 韩燕. 城市化背景下食物系统耦合研究的理论框架及优先方向. 地理学报, 2021, 76(10): 2343-2359 doi:10.11821/dlxb202110002
MA Enpu, CAI Jianming, GUO Hua, LIN Jing, LIAO Liuwen, HAN Yan. Theoretical framework and research priorities on food system couplings in an urbanization context. Acta Geographica Sinice, 2021, 76(10): 2343-2359 doi:10.11821/dlxb202110002


1 引言

食物是确保人类社会可持续发展的关键物质基础,在《2030年可持续发展议程》中,“零饥饿、食物安全、营养改善和可持续农业”对其他可持续发展目标(Sustainable Development Goals, SDGs)的实现具有不可取代的基础支撑作用[1]。食物作为人类所需营养物质和能量的来源,无论其经过多么复杂精细的加工过程,生产食物的原材料终究来自生态系统。因此,获取和利用食物可谓人类与生态系统之间最基本、最久远的互动形式,食物系统是建立这种人地互动关系、实现食物营养价值和经济价值的基本渠道。它是由初级农产品生产、食物加工、流通、消费和废弃物处理等社会分工环节及消费活动共同组成的“开放复杂巨系统”[2]。食物系统本质上是食物生命周期内劳动地域分工形成的社会—经济—生态复合子系统,是生态系统服务流及其价值实现的“社会—经济—空间”组织形式。

近期,人地系统耦合研究已成为地学领域关注的前沿议题,其聚焦于人地系统的可持续性,以“耦合、互馈、集成、模拟”作为人地系统耦合机理与区域可持续发展模拟研究的关键要点[3]。正在兴起的人地系统耦合研究为何重要、以及人地系统耦合研究如何介入食物系统以推动近远程耦合理论研究的深化和具体化,需要从人类与环境互动方式的变化及其驱动力、以及学术研究进展方面寻找答案。

就一般规律和人地互动方式而言,从劳动分工到劳动地域分工、再到地域分工的扁平化,是农业时代向工业时代及信息时代转变的根本特征。这一过程伴随着人类活动范围的不断扩大以及社会经济运行机制的根本变革。随着城市化进程进入后半段,过去基于当地生态系统服务的乡村社会已经转变为以非生态系统服务( 非生态系统服务是指人类从社会组织机构而非生态系统中获取的惠益,例如金融、教育与咨询服务等。)和远距离资源调度为基础的城市社会,人类与地理环境的互动方式随之发生了深刻变化,越来越多的区域通过资源要素流与其他区域关联起来,使得跨越空间距离的人地系统相互作用变得十分普遍[4]。这些变化主要源于4类驱动过程的交互作用。① 地域功能分化以及生产与消费的空间分离使得区域间资源要素流动成为区域可持续发展的内在需求。受地理环境空间差异和人类活动区位选择相互作用的影响,陆地表层逐步分化为不同的地域功能类型[5,6,7,8]。同时,以要素优化配置和发挥比较优势为主要目的的空间分工及专业化生产是生产活动与消费之间发生空间分离的核心机制,集聚经济与规模经济效应进一步强化了生产与消费的空间分离[9]。无论从效率角度还是公平角度看,在地域功能分化以后,不同主体功能区之间资源要素的自由流动均变得十分迫切和必要。实际上,不同主体功能区之间资源要素的合理流动是实现空间均衡的重要前提[5],例如,农产品在农业主产区和城市化区域之间的自由流动及其价值体现(即利润)的合理分配不仅有利于城市食物安全,也有助于促进农村经济发展。② 普遍存在的城市化现象使人类需求越来越集中到陆地表层的特定区域,这些区域的人类需求在城市化过程中不断增长,而当地生态系统服务则因城市扩张而持续减少。最终,城市化区域对食物、水、能源等生态系统服务及其他工业制品的需求都将超过当地区域的供给能力,转而需要从其他区域获得供应;同时,城市作为不同尺度空间中的财富中心、决策中心以及知识创新与技术变革的高地,也向其他区域输出资金、技术和信息等生产要素。这使得城市化区域成为“流空间”中“源、汇”共生的枢纽型区域板块[7]。③ 居民消费结构升级使消费品市场呈现出需求多元化、分层差异化等新特征,客观上也要求扩大包括食物在内的消费品供给来源,使更多区域成为城市开放系统的一部分。④ 不断完善的交通基础设施改变了人类与自然耦合系统之间的时空关系,其形成的“空间收敛”效应不断弱化距离对人类活动的影响,促进了资源要素在更大范围内的优化配置[10],是区域间资源要素流形成及加速的直接驱动因素。

受上述4类驱动过程交互作用的影响,人地关系互动模式的网络化越来越要求地理学研究采取全程耦合(Meta-Coupling)范式,即将区域内部、区域与周边区域、以及非邻接区域之间的人地互动同时纳入考虑。食物系统作为包含农业、食品加工业、物流业、批发零售业、餐饮业及市政服务业的多区域、开放型社会—经济—生态复合子系统,将其确定为人地系统耦合研究的具体领域,开展食物系统近远程耦合的理论与实证研究可谓正当其时。

从历史视角看,稳定的食物来源是人类定居的基本前提,定居则加速了依存经济(采集、狩猎)向食物生产经济的转变[11]。可见,食物系统的形成与人类定居同源共生,从最简单的“采集→食用”到如今高度复杂的食物供应链网络,食物系统在要素、结构、功能和尺度方面随着人类定居方式的升级发生了极大变化。城市作为以剩余农产品为物质基础并且日益主导人类生活的定居方式,在食物系统的尺度扩张和分工细化方面发挥着关键驱动作用。然而,城市化与食物系统之间诸多潜在的联系并未得到充分探索,目前已明确建立并被广泛研究的仅限于“建成区扩张—农地损失”和“收入变化—饮食构成”两组关系[12]。其他亟待研究的问题包括:城市化如何驱动食物系统变化?食物系统变化蕴含怎样的人地耦合关系?食物系统近远程耦合产生怎样的社会经济与环境影响?以及应对这些影响需要制定怎样的权衡策略等。鉴于此,本文基于近远程耦合[4, 13-19]与食物系统[2, 20]领域的研究现状,以城市化作为主要驱动力背景,将食物系统要素与远程耦合框架相结合,建立城市化驱动下食物系统近远程耦合的理论框架,并提出食物系统耦合研究的优先方向和技术路径,以促进人地系统耦合理论研究的深化和具体化。

2 食物系统近远程耦合理论的科学基础

2.1 多向度联系特质是食物系统融入远程耦合框架的内在依据

食物系统是多部门、跨区域、跨界面交互网络的枢纽,其内部存在多向度的复杂联系。作为自然再生产与经济再生产过程相结合的产物,食物直接与可持续发展的多个方面联系在一起,包括但不限于气候变化、水资源利用、土地保有权、城乡食物流通、经济机会(包括农户生计)、性别与公平、以及营养和健康等[21,22,23]。食物的力量在于其将自然、人类生存、健康、文化和生计联系起来的物质供应及文化象征功能[24]。因此,就可持续发展目标而言,食物提供了一个贯穿各领域的切入点,通过这一切入点,作为整体性认识方法的食物系统为揭示其内部各组分间的相互联系、进行多部门和跨尺度综合研究提供了洞察力,并有助于综合性政策的制定[25]。实际上,联合国可持续发展目标中近30项具体目标与食物系统直接或间接相关。具体而言,食物系统的多向度联系体现在3个方面。

在多部门交互方面,食物系统的一般定义是“将农业原料转化为食品,然后进行分销并运输到零售地点由消费者购买和消费的系列活动”[26];而城市—区域食物系统则被定义为“存在于特定地理区域内的与食物生产、加工、营销和消费相关的行动者、过程和关系的复杂网络,空间上包括一个相对集中的城市中心以及为城市供应食物的郊区和农村腹地,是一个管理人口流、货物流和生态系统服务流的区域景观”[27]。由两种定义不难看出,食物系统涉及到生产、加工、流通、销售和消费等多个部门的交互作用。因此,食物系统也被视为思考农业、工业、经济、生态、社会、健康和其他与食物和营养有关的多部门之间相互关系的概念工具[28]

在跨区域交互方面,城市—区域食物系统方法着眼于研究通过食物系统发生的城乡互动。认为改善城乡连通性对于实现可持续食物系统至关重要[29],因为城市依赖于周边郊区和农村腹地提供的食物和生态系统服务[25],同时对于生活在农村地区的居民而言,其生活质量往往与他们是否能够接触和利用城市需求市场直接相关[30]。更广泛地说,通过食物系统实现区域一体化也可以作为撬动区域转型发展的杠杆,例如米兰通过制定城市食物政策和新城市议程来促进可持续发展目标的实现[25]。通过食物系统来强化城乡联系有利于促进减贫、消除饥饿、创造就业机会、改善基础设施以及城—乡连续体中社会包容性与可持续性的实现[25]。城市—区域食物系统作为一种颇有前途的分析和理论工具,可以帮助人们理解城乡之间通过食物系统所形成的相互依赖性,并帮助他们在城乡之间建立起互惠互利的协作关系。

在跨界面交互方面,食物系统的概念内涵表明其涉及从生态系统到人类消费和废弃物处理的跨界面过程。具体而言,这种跨界面过程包括使食物生产成为可能的资源环境条件,利用资源环境条件的人力资本、技术手段和基础设施,连接农产品生产者、收购商、加工商、零售商和消费者的市场过程,以及消费者在饮食偏好、食物准备和家庭内部分配模式等方面的行为[31]。食物系统的跨界面过程还体现在驱动力及其作用机制上,诸如火山爆发和太阳活动周期的自然驱动力会显著影响全球环境变化;以土地覆盖变化和气候变化为典型代表的全球变化驱动力又与人口变化、经济发展、社会—政治—文化背景和科学技术等社会经济驱动力跨界面相互作用,推动食物系统发生变化;在食物系统内部,这些变化通过影响食物供应、食物获取和食物利用来影响食物安全,进而又对驱动因子产生环境层面和社会经济层面的反馈,例如温室气体排放、水资源消耗、生计变迁等[31]图1)。显然,揭示食物系统在多部门、跨区域、跨界面交互网络中的多向度联系有利于促进食物系统复杂性及其作为整体性研究方法的认识。同时,这种多向度联系特质也是将食物系统要素融入远程耦合框架的内在依据。

图1

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图1食物系统变化驱动力的跨界面交互及其反馈

注:根据文献[31]转绘,实线箭头表示社会经济和环境因素对食物系统的驱动作用,虚线箭头表示食物系统对社会经济与环境的反馈作用,下文同。
Fig. 1Cross-interface interaction of the driving forces in food system changes and its feedback



2.2 全球化与城市化是食物系统融入远程耦合框架的外在条件

受全球化和城市化等外部驱动因素影响,食物系统一直处于某种程度的变化当中。早在18世纪以前,食物供应就已经开始全球化。随着工业革命出现,这种供应方式获得了新的优势,此后食物开始在全球生产和贸易体系中登场,并通过全球性机构实施管理[32]。这种全球化趋势在第二次世界大战后随着贸易自由化和市场范围扩大而进一步加快,自20世纪80年代,特别是1994年乌拉圭回合农业协议通过以来,农产品的贸易自由化趋势总体上在不断增强[33]。这种趋势使食物系统的演化条件发生了4个方面的变化:① 劳动力、资本、技术等生产要素的流动改变了人们与食物的相互关系,因为这些要素流动跨越了国界;② 从生产到消费的纵向一体化不再是组织食物系统的唯一模式,更具有流动性的、多维度的横向关系网络模式也同样有效[31];③ 通过比较国际市场上的生产成本和产品价格,经营者更倾向于在生产成本较低的地方投资农业,然后通过物流在更有利可图的地方销售农产品[33];④ 在经营者中,跨国公司的出现使得食物与生产地的“脱钩”变得更加复杂,也导致适当监管对策的制定变得更加困难[31]。这些新的演化条件使食物系统出现了空前的尺度扩张,农产品国际贸易快速增长,海外农业投资、远洋捕捞、虚拟水战略等迅速涌现,使食物系统中的人地耦合关系从区域扩展到了全球。

食物系统演化的另一个重要驱动力是城市化,城市化的实质是在城乡之间建立连接并促进人口、资源、货物、信息、技术、资金与文化观念的流动。农产品物流作为这些要素流动的基本组成部分,或许也是城市起源以来最本质、最持久的城乡互动形式。众所周知,城市是一个开放的复杂巨系统,在开放系统中,城市与半城市化地区以及农村腹地之间的互动是城市地区的本质[34]。历史上看,剩余农产品是劳动生产率提高的产物,它构成了城市起源的物质基础。劳动生产率提高意味着较小比例的劳动力从事农业即可养活全社会的人口,因此更多的劳动力可以转移到工业等非农产业[35]。而非农产业的出现和集聚则孕育了城市的雏形,并成为当今城市的主要特征。随着技术创新推动农业生产效率的进一步提高,为乡村人口向城市转移创造了条件,城市人口开始不断增长。这意味着全社会食物需求的重心将逐步转移到城市。

实际上,在过去几十年里,人口、商品和服务的流动在越来越多地指向城市地区[36]。时至今日,随着半数以上的人口定居到城市中,城市显然已成为食物需求的重心所在。即便在城市化率相对较低的亚洲和西非地区,食物消费中2/3至3/4的需求仍源于城市驱动[37,38]。就食物系统的演化过程而言,城市化也带来4个方面的变化:① 城市化在空间上的典型过程是高密度建成区的扩张,由于全球60%以上的灌溉农田位于城市周边地区,使得城市扩张极易侵占耕作条件良好的优质农田[39],结果是城市辖区内供应的食物数量总体减少。② 城市化同时还意味着过去散布于广袤乡村的人口逐步集聚到特定的节点型区域(即城市化区域),随着城市人口增长,城市对食物的需求也快速增长,这一增一减最终导致城市辖区难以满足不断增长的食物需求。③ 居民收入水平是影响食物系统的重要因素之一[40]。城市化过程中大量非农就业的形成使进入城市的人口获得了更好的经济机会,居民收入水平不断提高,恩格尔系数持续下降,消费结构快速升级,这使得一些过去不常消费或消费较少的食物,如反季节蔬菜、进口食品和肉类等越来越多并最终常态化地进入了普通市民家庭。④ 影响消费者偏好和生活方式的社会经济趋势正在推动饮食选择和食物消费的重大变化[36]。虽然食物消费模式的变化是一种全球现象,但这些现象主要起源于城市地区[36]。例如,城市中的职住分离、家庭规模小型化[40]、餐饮行业互联网化、以及广告和城市环境均会影响食物系统。这些变化相互叠加的结果是:城市化区域的食物供应在数量和结构上都将面临突出挑战,随着全球大都市区持续扩张、城市人口不断增长以及农业用地日渐稀缺,城市将不得不从更加遥远的区域采购食品,从而使食物系统中的人地耦合从邻近逐步演化到更远距离。

总之,全球化和城市化驱动力的共同作用加速了传统食物系统向混合食物系统及现代食物系统的转变[20],使围绕食物的系列过程逐步跨越了生态系统与社会治理的边界,从而形成食物系统的远程耦合。无论从食物系统多向度联系的自身特质看,还是从全球化与城市化驱动的演化结果看,将食物系统融入远程耦合框架均具有坚实的科学基础。需要说明的是,由于大部分城市的辖区范围内仍保留一定规模的农业生产,本地耦合始终存在,因此,反映在食物系统中的人地耦合属于近远程耦合或全程耦合。

3 城市化驱动下食物系统近远程耦合的理论框架

3.1 食物系统近远程耦合理论框架的建立

基于以上科学基础,本文紧扣城市化这一驱动力背景( 尽管在论证科学基础时部分涉及了全球化,但“全球化”在本文中仅作为不宜缺少的研究背景出现,并不参与理论框架的建立。另外,在塑造贸易路线并影响全球化格局的四大因素中[41],除地理特征以外,技术变革、贸易需求和政治环境均与城市密切相关,因此可认为城市化是食物系统演化中更为根本的驱动力。),以食物里程和食物域扩张为结合点,将远程耦合框架的5个关联组件(即系统、流、代理、原因、影响)和食物系统的6个环节(即生产、加工处理、分销、零售、消费、废物管理),以及城市化驱动下的城乡互动过程结合起来,构建城市化驱动下食物系统近远程耦合的理论框架(图2)。该理论框架将城市化与食物系统的变化直接联系起来,据此可进一步研究城市化过程对食物系统近远程耦合演化的内在驱动机理以及食物系统近远程耦合在不同区域产生的社会经济效应和环境效应等问题。

图2

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图2城市化驱动下食物系统近远程耦合的理论框架

注:根据远程耦合框架[13]、全程耦合[15]以及食物系统结构[26]的现有研究整合凝练而得。
Fig. 2Theoretical framework of local and tele-coupling of food systems driven by urbanization



在城市化驱动下的食物系统近远程耦合中,系统主要包括城市地域系统、大都市邻接区和乡村地域系统。其中,城市地域系统是以非生态系统服务和远距离资源调度为基础,以城镇空间为主体的人类与自然耦合系统;乡村地域系统是以当地生态系统服务为基础,以农业空间和生态空间为主体的人类与自然耦合系统;大都市邻接区则是环绕在城市辖区或城市群外围,介于城市地域系统和乡村地域系统之间的中介型区域。各系统之间的资源要素流主要包括人口流、市场信息流、生态系统服务流和资金流等。产生这些流的原因包括城市化重塑人口分布和食物消费格局;农产品优势产区分工专业化、农业生产商品化和规模化;由居民收入增长和膳食转型引致的食物需求多元化及分层差异化;以及城市扩张占用耕地等(图2)。其中,对城市化如何驱动食物系统远程耦合的论述详见下文中的“理论内涵”部分。有关近程耦合、远程耦合和近远程耦合的相关术语定义和适用尺度说明详见马恩朴等[4]的研究。根据前期研究[4],本文中食物系统的近程耦合包含内部耦合和周边耦合,是指发生在城市地域系统内部及其与大都市邻接区之间的食物系统耦合关系;远程耦合则是城市与乡村之间跨越空间距离(≥ 200 km)的食物系统耦合关系(图2)。

食物系统近远程耦合中各环节的代理依次是:生产环节包括农户、家庭农场、农业企业和农民专业合作社;加工处理环节为农产品加工企业;分销环节为仓储物流企业和农产品批发商;零售环节为食品零售商;消费环节包括餐饮企业、酒店、城市家庭和餐馆;废物管理环节则包括城市管理者、清洁工人和城市居民。可见,食物系统串联了乡村到城市的众多社会主体,它为研究城市化过程中近远程的人地系统相互作用及城乡融合提供了一个很好的切入点。通过这一切入点,作为整体性认识方法的食物系统为揭示城乡之间各组分的内在联系,进行多部门和跨尺度综合研究提供了洞察力。

3.2 城市化驱动下食物系统近远程耦合的理论内涵

从地理空间耦合角度来看,理解食物系统近远程耦合的关键在于厘清食物系统远程耦合的发生机理。城市化作为跨越空间距离的社会经济演化过程,通过要素集聚重塑了区域人口分布格局,进而重塑了食物需求的空间分布模式,使食物需求越来越集中分布到特定的节点空间。随着城市化中人口集聚和居民收入分化的进行,城市居民的多元化饮食偏好以及膳食转型的程度差异使食物需求的多样性和层次性开始显现出来。同时,城市所在区域的农业用地因城市扩张而逐步减少,导致城市自身的食物供给能力下降;另外,城市所在区域的土地、水资源、光照、积温和土壤类型等自然条件也决定了城市化区域只能生产种类有限的食物。

因此,随着城市化进行,城市自身有限的食物供给将难以满足不断增长,且类型与层次日益多元化的食物需求,转而需要通过发达的基础设施网络从腹地区域获得供应,使围绕食物的系列过程逐步跨越了社会治理单元与生态系统的边界,形成城市化驱动下的食物系统远程耦合。食物系统的远程耦合实际上是食物需求增长推动城市生态足迹扩张的过程,本质上是“食物里程”扩张引致的远距离人地系统相互作用。这种远端相互作用和原有的本地耦合一起,共同组成了食物系统近远程耦合的完整过程。该理论旨在揭示特大城市在“食物里程”扩张与膳食结构转型过程中与周边及远端区域的社会经济和生态环境之间存在的隐性联系,以及这些联系对城市和乡村可持续发展的影响。与本地耦合相比,远程耦合中的人地系统相互作用在路径上更加间接,影响效应更为隐蔽。

具体而言,若以乡村作为发送系统,城市作为接收系统,则食物系统远程耦合的过程如下:城市居民的农产品需求最终将反映到交易量和价格上,交易量和价格等市场信息会通过市场流通体系、政府政策、新闻媒体、专业咨询机构和非正式沟通等信息渠道反馈到乡村。农村居民根据掌握的市场信息进行土地利用决策,将当地的光、热、水、土等环境资源和劳动力、资本、技术等生产要素投入农业生产获取农产品,进而通过市场流通体系将农产品供应到城市,从而在乡村与城市之间形成食物供应这一重要的生态系统服务流;食物供应的生态系统服务价值则以货币形式返回到乡村,为农业再生产提供资金来源(图2)。

当城市的农产品需求发生较大变化,如发生膳食转型时,这些需求上的变化将通过市场和政策两种机制传导到乡村的生产环节,引起乡村地区的农地利用转型,农业生产结构和要素投入随之发生变化,进而产生跨越空间距离的社会经济与环境影响(图2)。社会经济层面上,嵌入食物系统的远程耦合过程为农村地区创造了经济机会,通过食物系统来强化城乡联系对于促进农村减贫、保障食物安全、创造就业机会和改善乡村基础设施具有多方面的积极影响。而在环境层面上,农业生产结构与要素投入的变化既有可能加剧环境影响,也同样具有减缓影响的潜力,这取决于农业生产结构和要素投入将如何变化,以及这种变化是否提高了农业生产与当地资源环境容量的匹配性。

可见,在食物系统的远程耦合中,城市与乡村之间跨越空间距离的社会经济和环境相互作用是通过流通体系和农地利用来传导的,其中生态系统服务流(此处即农产品流)是相互作用的核心机制。城市居民并未直接作用于农村生态环境,而是通过市场机制将不断增长且日益多元化的食物需求反馈到乡村,引起乡村地区的农地利用转型,进而产生社会经济与环境影响。值得注意的是,当某些农业主产区因水资源短缺难以满足灌溉用水时,则可能通过跨流域调水从其他区域获得水资源,从而形成更加间接的耦合传递(图3)。显然,食物系统远程耦合的社会经济与环境影响具有隐蔽性、介导性和时空滞后性等特征,这是食物系统耦合研究中需要对近、远程加以区分的关键点。

图3

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图3食物系统远程耦合的概念框架

Fig. 3Conceptual framework for tele-coupling of food systems



3.3 食物系统近远程耦合理论框架的合理简化

在城市食物系统的近远程耦合中,以农产品流为具体表现形式的生态系统服务流是城市居民与本地、周边及远端生态系统隐性联系和间接反馈的物理载体。食物系统耦合研究中最核心的内容是根据农产品流量和相关模型参数(如单位面积产量、单位质量食物的虚拟水含量、可食部分比重、热量转换系数、碳排放系数、氮磷流失系数等),将城市最终消费的食物转化为消费活动产生的间接资源利用、社会效益和环境足迹,并根据农产品的最终来源分配食物系统的近远程耦合效应。可见,耦合研究中除需要合理确定相关模型参数以外,最关键的工作是获取各类农产品的流量和流向数据。在实证研究中,除深加工类和便携类食品需要专门考虑加工环节的供应链以外,其他加工程度较低的食物类型,如蔬菜、水果等生鲜类食品并没有必要追溯流通过程中所有环节的投入产出关系,只需引入“流通损耗率”即可根据最终消费量推算出产地的实际供应量。另外,从提高研究可操作性的角度来看,对具有指导意义的一般理论框架进行适当简化也有一定的必要性。为此,笔者对图2所示的理论框架进行适当简化,将加工处理、分销和零售3个环节合并为“流通体系”,得到更加简明的食物系统近远程耦合理论框架(图4)。

图4

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图4合理简化后的食物系统近远程耦合理论框架

注:根据远程耦合框架[13]、全程耦合[15]以及食物系统结构[26]的现有研究整合简化而得。
Fig. 4Reasonably simplified theoretical framework of local and tele-coupling of food systems



4 食物系统耦合研究的优先方向和技术路径

4.1 食物系统耦合研究的优先方向

第七次全国人口普查公报数据显示,常住人口城市化率达到63.89%,中国已迈入以城市为主导的社会发展阶段。在食物系统的状态变量——食物类型结构、食物流量、食物里程和食物域( 食物类型结构、食物流量、食物里程和食物域是能够完整描述食物系统的所含变量个数最少的变量组。换言之,只需要利用这4个变量就能完整地描述任何食物系统。)的变化中,城市已成为决定性的影响因素。随着城市日益依赖于外部供应,食物系统远程耦合中的跨区域资源环境问题有可能成为城市食物安全隐患的真正原因所在。同时,中国在推动高质量城市化过程中也更加注重城乡、区域均衡发展,面向2020年后的长效脱贫机制构建,以及面向公共卫生安全的食物系统跨区域、多层次治理有望成为新时期的国家重大战略需求。基于上述判断,围绕食物系统近远程耦合的地理学研究应当在加强食物域格局特征、时空演化及其动力机制等基本问题研究的基础上,着力从以下4个优先方向实现研究突破。

4.1.1 耦合社会经济文化变迁与生物地球化学循环的供应链网络人地互动研究 社会经济发展和文化观念变迁会重塑人类消费结构及生活方式,这些变化循着供应链网络反作用于生产端,引起本地、周边和远端区域生产结构、土地利用及要素投入的变化,进而改变人类活动对近远程生态系统的影响。在生产与消费之间空间分离愈加显著的情况下,关于“社会经济文化变迁如何影响生物地球化学循环”的研究就需要放到供应链网络中去追溯和开展。特别是随着地球系统进入人类世,人类活动已成为气候变化、土地覆被变化和生物地球化学循环等生物物理过程的重要驱动力[42,43],其中,保障地球系统安全运作的几类行星边界(Planetary Boundaries)(即气候变化、生物多样性丧失速度和全球氮循环)已被迄今的人类活动所超越[44,45,46];加之跨区域要素流已成为社会的基本运行机制,因此以地理空间网络作为人地互动的基本单元、开展耦合人文过程与自然过程的综合集成研究就十分迫切和必要。

食物系统中的人地互动尤其如此[47],例如,随着城市居民的收入增长,其膳食结构发生了显著变化,主要表现为谷类食物的摄入量逐渐减少而肉类食物的摄入量总体增加,1982—2002年间中国城市居民对动物性食品的消费增长了126.4%,谷类食物消费量下降25.4%[48];另有研究发现,1997—2011年间中国城市居民每日消费的食物中,精制谷物平均减少了5.4 g,水果和乳制品则分别增加3 g和1.2 g[49]。这些城市地区的社会经济变迁通过市场和政策(如供给侧结构性改革)两种机制传导至农村地区的生产端,引起农业生产结构、土地利用及其他生产要素投入的变化,特别是推动了养殖规模的快速扩张及畜禽粪污排放量的快速增长,显著改变了中国农业生态系统的氮磷循环。使得畜禽粪污排放成为中国农业源氮磷排放的主体[50]

显然,耦合社会经济文化变迁与生物地球化学循环的供应链网络人地互动研究不仅十分迫切,也是当前及未来地球科学领域的前沿问题,对于推动地理学研究的深化和精细化,以及支撑“美丽中国”建设均具有重要意义。该领域需要重点研究社会经济文化变迁与生物地球化学循环之间跨区域、跨界面耦合互馈的过程、路径与机理(图5);以城市和小流域作为耦合研究的基本单元,集成遥感、地理信息、大数据、社会调查、原位观测、采样与实验分析等多学科技术方法对上述耦合互馈的过程、路径与机理进行定量研究;预测社会经济因素通过食物系统影响生物物理过程进而逼近甚至越过行星边界(Planetary Boundaries)的超载风险,并为应对可能出现的环境异常制定解决方案。值得强调的是,为开展耦合人文过程与自然过程的食物系统综合集成研究,需要更加切实地采取多学科合作研究方式、运用多学科交叉集成以及地理空间大数据分析等新的研究手段。

图5

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图5耦合社会经济文化变迁与生物地球化学循环的人地互动理论框架

Fig. 5Theoretical framework of human-earth interaction integrating socioeconomic and cultural changes and biogeochemical cycle



4.1.2 食物系统近远程耦合效应及其调控策略研究 就城市食物系统而言,看似司空见惯的农产品供应,背后实则存在大量社会经济与环境层面的跨区域交互过程,揭示这些跨区域交互过程产生的影响是食物系统耦合研究的核心内容之一。城市化过程中,随着食物系统跨越社会治理单元和生态系统的边界,其对社会经济和生态环境的影响也相应跨越了上述边界,形成食物系统的近远程耦合效应。食物系统近远程耦合效应研究的核心是根据农产品流量、相关技术转化率(如单位面积产量、单位质量食物的虚拟水含量)、社会经济效应参数(如可食部分比重、热量转换系数、农产品价格、流通利润率)和环境效应参数(如碳排放系数、氮磷流失系数等),将城市最终消费的食物转化为消费活动间接利用的自然资源、以及所产生的社会经济效应和环境足迹,并根据农产品的最终来源分配食物系统的近远程耦合效应。食物系统的近远程耦合效应是严格基于农产品流量数据和产地来源进行分配的,因此结果合理可靠,并且可以对应到产地区域的具体资源占用及其环境压力上。食物系统近远程耦合效应研究中除广泛应用“环境足迹”这一工具箱以外,区域间分析方法也可用于研究食物系统的近远程耦合效应;还可运用空间计量模型,如空间滞后模型(Spatial Auto Regression Model, SAR)、空间误差模型(Spatial Error Model, SEM)和空间Durbin模型(Spatial Durbin Model, SDM)等模型方法来研究城市食物系统的空间溢出效应。

此外,扩展至多区域的要素关联分析——即跨区域要素关联(Nexus)分析有望在食物系统的近远程耦合效应及其调控策略研究中发挥独特作用。对于食物安全而言,水和土地都是不可或缺的资源要素,但一个十分突出的挑战是:水和土地等有限自然资源在不同部门间的竞争性使用可能会导致不同目标之间的相互钳制和冲突,进而产生食物安全问题[51]。例如在“水—土地—食物—能源”构成的关联框架中,水需要用于灌溉,同时为灌溉提供电力的能源生产也需要消耗水[52],这就很容易在农业部门和能源部门之间形成对水资源利用的钳制关系。同理,粮食能源化趋势,即用粮食作物生产生物燃料的趋势也造成生物能源与粮食生产争夺土地资源的紧张关系[53]。这些源于资源竞争性使用而产生的要素钳制和冲突问题通过食物系统影响了远端区域(如城市地区)的食物安全。

反过来看,在城市化过程中,城市地区的水土资源在不同用途之间也存在竞争性使用现象。例如,用于城市发展或生态建设的水土资源越多,就意味着能够用于农业生产的水土资源越少。其结果自然是降低了城市地区的食物自给率,使食物供应的资源环境压力向其他区域转移,即形成自然与人文要素的跨区域关联过程(图6)。

图6

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图6城市食物系统中相关要素的跨区域关联示意图

Fig. 6Schematic diagram of cross-regional nexus of relevant elements in the urban food system



显然,为化解食物系统远程耦合的跨区域资源环境问题,就需要对食物系统的近远程耦合过程进行调控。由于食物系统涉及环节众多、供需关系复杂,总体上对食物系统的综合调控应兼顾生产端调控、消费端调控和供应链管理3个方面(表1),同时还应注重分析城市腹地内食物供给服务与水源涵养、土壤保持等其他生态系统服务的权衡关系,提出生态系统服务的协调方法与途径。从要素关联角度来看,针对资源竞争性使用导致的要素钳制和冲突问题,其调控策略无疑就是资源利用结构优化以及资源的多功能综合利用。例如,通过将城市景观营造和食物生产两种需求结合起来,在城市中打造兼有生产功能和景观价值的可食用景观(Edible Landscape),推动城市地区水土资源的多功能综合利用,不仅能够提高城市的食物自给率,也同时减轻了城市对其他区域的资源环境压力。而如何应用这些思路和方法,则值得在未来的案例研究中去深入探讨。

Tab. 1
表1
表1食物系统综合调控的“工具箱”
Tab. 1“Toolbox” for comprehensive regulation of food systems
调控环节生产端调控供应链管理消费端调控
调控工具·农业主产区雨洪调节与利用系统
·水肥一体化滴灌与测土个性配肥
·农业区块链技术与数字农业系统
·农业用水超限额阶梯水费制度
·农业结构、政策与生产方式转型
·……
·无公害农产品认证
·绿色、有机食品认证
·农产品地理标志认证
·农产品认证有效性监督
·农产品环境标签制度
·……
·可食用景观规划
·建立地方食物系统
·制定《负责任消费指南》
·制定《居民膳食指南》
·开展食物-健康-环境教育
·……

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4.1.3 基于食物系统的城乡融合与长效脱贫机制研究 在实践应用方面,作为整体性认识方法的食物系统也是分析社会现实问题、提出科学解决方案的良好抓手。由于食物系统串联了乡村到城市的众多社会主体和产业部门,因此构建安全、健康、可持续的食物系统被视为推动城乡融合的最佳切入点[54]。近年来,由联合国粮食及农业组织牵头制定的《米兰城市食品政策公约》(Milan Urban Food Policy Pact)为食物系统的城乡融合提供了新的体制创新引擎[54];该机构最新开发的城市—区域食物系统(City Region Food Systems, CRFS)概念框架和综合研究方法则为相关研究提供了方法借鉴[25]。可以说,基于食物系统开展城乡融合与长效脱贫机制研究的时机已十分成熟。

当前,随着现行标准下的农村贫困人口全部脱贫,面向2020年后的农村地区长效脱贫机制构建应当是该领域研究的重点主题。对于农村地区而言,成为城市食物系统的一部分意味着更好的发展机会,这在以农业为基础发展起来的区域中得到了证实,例如,被誉为中国“蔬菜之乡”的寿光市正是较早融入城市消费市场才获得农业农村发展的巨大优势。虽然“寿光模式”很难再复制,但其中的一些经验,例如重视流通基础设施建设和品牌打造等在贫困地区依然适用。近年来开展的消费扶贫也表明促进贫困地区的产品和服务进入全国市场对这些区域的脱贫具有很大帮助。随着后扶贫时期的到来,如何在刚脱贫不久的地区建立长效脱贫机制,食物系统或许是一个很好的切入点。需要进一步研究的问题包括:如何通过食物系统来培育和激发贫困地区的内生发展动力;如何调节农产品供应链上的利润分布以确保食物系统更好地服务于农村减贫;如何将政府主导、自上而下式的消费扶贫转换为政府引导、扶持末端、上下联动、市场化的食物系统耦合模式等。

在城乡融合与乡村振兴方面,可将食物系统确定为一项重要抓手。根据产业链增值规律,将食物系统的加工和物流仓储等环节适当向乡村前移,例如,发展产地加工、产地仓储、建设产地冷藏保鲜库等有助于农村地区获得更多的增值收益、提高农村地区对农产品价格波动的适应性,同时还能为农村人口创造就业岗位。因此,城市食物系统向乡村延伸是促进城乡融合、乡村振兴的一种重要模式,但实践操作中还需要对农产品加工、仓储和冷链物流产业的规模门槛、空间布局以及投入产出等实际问题开展应用型研究。

4.1.4 面向公共卫生安全的食物系统跨区域、多层次治理研究 大量科学证据表明,困扰人类社会的传染病源于病毒从野生动物到人类的跨物种传播,而病毒跨物种传播的途径则包括对野生动物的非法猎捕、交易、运输和食用。目前已有明确的实验结果证明SARS样冠状病毒的自然宿主为蝙蝠,并可能通过中间宿主向人类传播[55,56]。因此,食物系统监管不力所导致的非法猎捕、交易、运输及滥食野生动物是引发公共卫生安全事件的重要原因之一。即便抛开潜在的公共卫生安全隐患不论,单从生态文明建设和保护生物多样性角度出发,也应该对食物系统中存在的野生动物非法交易活动严加管控。此外,部分进口冷链食品受病原体污染引发的从业人员感染案例还表明,在新冠肺炎全球大流行期间,对食物系统的国际协作治理不足会增加食物流通中的物品污染和病毒传播风险。鉴于进入21世纪以来连续几次疫情爆发对公共卫生安全和社会经济发展造成的巨大冲击和破坏,以及野生动物非法交易链本身的隐蔽性和食物流通体系的跨区域性,有必要加快开展面向公共卫生安全的食物系统跨区域、多层次治理研究。

中国抗击新型冠状病毒肺炎的经验表明,在公共卫生安全事件中,不同区域、层级、部门和主体之间应采取“分类、统筹、协作”的系统思维进行有效合作和管控应对[57],针对食物系统的治理措施更应如此。在面向公共卫生安全的食物系统跨区域、多层次治理研究中,地理学可采用跨学科研究方法,在参考流行病学、病毒学等其他学科研究成果的基础上,将膳食观念、野生动物非法交易链、流行病学调查、环境采样分析和人地关系等纳入考虑,揭示疫情通过食物系统爆发的跨界面过程、以及通过物流体系传播的跨区域过程,并提出立法、跨区联合执法、司法警示、食物—健康—环境教育、饮食文化革新、加强供应链监管、市场督查和国际合作等针对性措施,以建立起对传染病爆发具有预防作用的跨区域、多层次食物系统治理体系。

4.2 食物系统耦合研究的技术路径

为更加有效地指导案例研究的开展,笔者初步设计了食物系统耦合研究的一般技术路径,主要步骤包括:① 系统界定:界定案例组内各兴趣区域(Region of Interest,ROI)所属的系统类型,即确定各兴趣区域属于发送系统、接收系统还是外溢系统。确定生产、流通、消费各环节与上述系统的对应关系,一般而言,生产环节对应发送系统,消费环节对应接收系统,流通所经过的区域对应外溢系统。② 确定代理:确定食物系统中各环节的参与者,这些参与者即为食物系统近远程耦合的代理。③ 调查系统间的流:根据理论框架,食物系统近远程耦合涉及的流包括人口流、信息流、农产品流和资金流,其中农产品流是调查的重点。要结合实地调查和地理空间大数据等方法手段来获取农产品流的产地来源、运输里程、类型结构、各类农产品的流量及其在相应产地区域的技术转化率(如单位面积产量、水资源利用效率、化肥有效利用率)等研究数据。④ 探究原因:以食物系统近远程耦合的理论框架为指导,运用空间分工、专业化与集聚经济理论,以及结构方程模型、回归分析、格兰杰因果关系检验和要素关联(Nexus)分析等方法研究食物系统近远程耦合的因果关系和内在机理。⑤ 揭示影响:运用“环境足迹”(包括土地足迹、水足迹、碳足迹、氮磷足迹等)、多区域投入产出模型、物质流分析、能值分析、环境投入产出分析和生命周期评估等区域间分析方法以及空间计量模型等研究方法,从社会经济层面和环境层面研究食物系统近远程耦合对发送系统、接收系统及外溢系统的影响,明确食物系统近远程耦合蕴含的可持续发展问题与挑战。⑥ 耦合调控:从生产端调控、消费端调控和供应链管理等方面提出应对食物系统可持续发展问题的政策建议及解决方案。

5 结语

食物系统作为食物生命周期内劳动地域分工的产物,其涉及了从生态系统到人类消费和废弃物处理的跨界面过程,同时也涉及从生产、加工、流通、销售到消费的多部门交互,以及从乡村到城市、甚至产地到全球消费市场的跨区域交互过程,因此是人地系统近远程耦合研究的重要领域。无论从食物系统的自身特质还是演化结果看,将其融入远程耦合框架均具有坚实的科学基础。在空间连接性与要素流动性不断增强的城市化时代,由城市化驱动的食物系统变化构成了近远程耦合的重要内容之一,为了提升科学研究对城市化中跨区域资源环境问题的解释力,并提高对城乡可持续发展的调控能力,就有必要将远程耦合框架应用到城市食物系统研究中来。为此,本文在论证理论研究内在依据及外在条件的基础上,将食物系统的构成要素与远程耦合框架相结合,建立了城市化驱动下食物系统近远程耦合的理论框架,进而论述该理论框架的具体内涵;并明确提出食物系统耦合研究的基本问题(即食物域格局特征、时空演化及其动力机制)和4个亟待突破的优先研究方向、以及开展食物系统耦合研究的一般技术路径。该研究可为进一步的案例实证提供理论支撑和研究思路参考。

总之,食物系统近远程耦合研究为揭示“流空间”中人类与环境的隐性联系和间接反馈提供了具体切入点,对于开展近远程耦合视角下的人地关系网络系统研究具有重要启发意义;对于推进可持续发展目标的实现具有重要现实价值。尤其耦合社会经济文化变迁与生物地球化学循环的供应链网络人地互动研究对于深刻揭示人文过程与自然过程的耦合互馈机理、推动地学领域的学科交叉融合具有重要意义,在成立交叉科学部的背景下,建议将该方向作为长期性重点领域进行部署,以推动中国地理学研究与国际同行的并跑以至领跑。

参考文献 原文顺序
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Ma Enpu, Cai Jianming, Lin Jing, et al. Explanation of land use/cover change from the perspective of tele-coupling
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[ 任宇飞, 方创琳, 孙思奥, . 城镇化与生态环境近远程耦合关系研究进展
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Food is related to the national economy and people's livelihood. China's food system is facing many challenges. The reduction of cultivated land resources, criticality of environmental pressures, loss of agricultural workforce, and rapid transformation of consumer demand have placed higher demands on food system functions. At the present in China, food system research is insufficient and the research content is fragmented, which cannot meet the needs and challenges of the society today. This article provides an in-depth analysis of the evolving concept of food system, summarizing the conceptual issues and types and characteristics of food systems. It then examines the progress of food system research, which evolved from concepts to methods, from a linear to a systematic recognition of the concept, from economic activities to food landscapes, from phenomenon descriptions to spatiotemporal analysis, among others, to consolidate the core connotation of the food system. Under the guidance of the human-environmental relationship paradigm, the spatial paradigm, the philosophy of science paradigms, and the systematic science paradigm, and following the path of "pattern-structure-process-mechanism," the spatial and temporal patterns, factor structure, evolution process, and development mechanism of food systems are further explored. The aim of this study is to construct a geographical paradigm of food system research. It intends to provide some references for promoting basic research and practical applications of a food system perspective.
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