, 胡晓旭Research progress on ecosystem service trade-offs: From cognition to decision-making
PENGJian, HUXiaoxu收稿日期:2017-01-5
修回日期:2017-04-28
网络出版日期:2017-06-25
版权声明:2017《地理学报》编辑部本文是开放获取期刊文献，在以下情况下可以自由使用：学术研究、学术交流、科研教学等，但不允许用于商业目的.
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随着日益增强的人类活动对生态系统负面影响逐渐扩大,生态系统服务研究已成为国际地理学、生态学及相关学科研究的前沿和热点[1-3]。生态系统服务是指生态系统所形成并维持的人类赖以生存的自然环境条件与效用[4],为人类直接或间接从生态系统得到的所有惠益[5],可分为供给服务、调节服务、文化服务和支持服务四大类[6]。作为将自然过程与人类活动联系起来的桥梁和纽带,生态系统服务对于自然资源的合理配置与利用,实现区域可持续发展具有重要的理论和现实意义[7]。
自生态系统服务这一概念提出以来,生态系统服务研究经历了二十余年的快速发 展[8]。生态系统服务评估从最初静态层面服务供给的货币化价值衡量,到如今更加重视生态系统服务对于人类福祉的影响,向着兼顾多利益相关者的综合评估不断发展[9-10]。生态系统服务的供给与需求往往受到人类决策的干预和支配,受人类认知水平及行为方式的影响,不同生态系统服务之间往往存在明显的冲突,如供给服务的上升可能带来调节服务下降的风险。认知生态系统服务之间不同程度此消彼长的权衡作用[11-12]和相互促进的协同作用[13],识别生态系统服务权衡作用对人类福祉的显著影响,并实现多种生态系统服务人类惠益的最大化成为研究和决策的重点和难点。
科学认知不同类型生态系统服务之间权衡关系是实现生态系统可持续管理的前 提[14]。生态系统服务权衡已经引起学界与决策层的高度关注[15-17],成为生态系统服务研究的重要领域[18]。在分析生态系统服务之间多重非线性关系的基础上,辨识不同尺度下权衡的类型特征、形成机制及时空格局,有利于帮助决策者在区域可持续发展的框架下做出科学决策;确保决策管理的目标不被短期需求所主导,而是充分顾及子孙后代的福利,继而制定合理的区域发展规划、生物多样性保护和生态补偿方案等[19-20]。本文从生态系统服务权衡的概念内涵出发,阐释生态系统服务权衡与人类福祉、生态补偿之间的关系,进而从权衡关系的认知与表达以及权衡的决策实现等方面,对生态系统服务权衡的国内外研究进展进行系统梳理及评述,最后总结展望未来研究的重点方向,以期有效推动生态系统服务权衡研究从认知到决策的进一步深入。
1 生态系统服务权衡
1.1 生态系统服务权衡的内涵
生态系统服务权衡产生于人类对生态系统服务的选择偏好[21],即强调特定类型生态系统服务的消费极大化,而有意或无意地削弱其他类型生态系统服务的供给。根据马斯洛需求层次模型,在权衡决策时,人们常依次倾向于关注供给服务、调节服务,其次才是文化服务和支持服务[22]。随着资源限制的日益突出,在过去一个世纪里,供给服务的增加已经降低了调节和文化服务及生物多样性[23]。这种选择偏好主要是基于对经济效益的强烈追求,忽略了生态、社会效益,偏离了总体效益最大化这一资源管理决策的初衷。缓和生态系统服务之间的权衡关系、提升人类福祉成为生态系统服务权衡研究的最终目标。生态系统服务权衡,作为一种平衡和抉择,可以理解为对生态系统服务间关系的一种综合把握。生态系统服务间的关系包含权衡（负向关系）、协同（正向关系）和兼容（无显著关系）等多个表现类型[24]。其中,权衡是指某些类型生态系统服务的供给受到其他类型生态系统服务消费增加而减少的情况[11],普遍存在于支持服务与调节服务之间;协同是指两种及两种以上的生态系统服务的供给同时增加或减少的状况[25],主要表现在支持服务与文化服务以及调节服务与文化服务之间;兼容则指生态系统服务间不存在明显的作用关系。生态系统服务间的此消彼长与生态系统服务种类的多样性、空间分布的不均衡性以及人类使用的选择性均有关[25]。为了减少权衡作用的负面效应,在决策前对生态系统服务进行权衡分析十分必要[26]。协同作用是实现生态系统服务利益最大化的内在途径,也是人类社会发展的最终目标[22];而现实中由于权衡作用的存在,人们往往在内心真实需求和利益驱使的双重作用下,面临生态系统服务供给选择上的取舍。
从科学到决策,是新时期中国地理学发展的重要特征与任务[27]。从语义上来直观理解,“生态系统服务权衡”一词既可以指生态系统服务供给此消彼长的权衡关系,也可强调生态系统服务消费取舍的权衡行为。因此,生态系统服务权衡能够天然的将关系认知与行为决策结合在一起,是地理学研究从科学到决策转型的核心途径。
1.2 生态系统服务权衡的类型
目前,针对不同研究视角及目标,存在多种类型的生态系统服务权衡分类体系,共同推动生态系统服务权衡从概念理解、定量表达到机理解析、决策实现的研究进程。首先,从权衡的关键因素出发,生态系统服务权衡可从空间权衡、时间权衡和可逆权衡3个维度进行解读[11]。其中,空间权衡指一个区域生态系统服务消费对于另一个区域的影响;时间权衡指短期的生态系统服务消费对于长期生态系统服务供给或消费的影响;可逆权衡尽管也探讨生态系统服务在时间上的动态变化,但更强调被破坏的生态系统服务回到初始状态的可恢复性,且在不同的时间和空间尺度上,可恢复的程度往往不尽相同。生态系统服务权衡的三分类方式分别关注生态系统服务在时间及空间尺度关联性和恢复弹性,依次强调生态系统服务在不同空间上的流动性、时间上的动态性、恢复力的大小。其中,对权衡时空尺度的理解是认知生态系统服务权衡的基本内容,而可逆性的提出则直接对接于生态系统管理决策。生态系统服务权衡关系的复杂性,也使得这3种权衡属性会同时出现在同一种权衡研究中,促使研究者逐步重视多维度权衡关系的耦合研究。其次,根据二维坐标系中两种生态系统服务变化的曲线特征,权衡关系可划分为无相互关联、直接权衡、凸权衡、凹权衡、非单调凹权衡以及反“S”型权衡等6种类型[28]。二维曲线的直观分类,让生态系统服务间的抽象关系得以定量表征,研究者能够从曲线特征中大体把握生态系统服务的变化,为后续生态系统服务管理提供有力的决策支撑。但是,这种对于生态系统服务间非线性权衡关系的简化也大大增加了研究结果的不确定性。如何从表征两种生态系统服务间的作用关系扩充到揭示多种服务间的作用关系,并从未涉及时空尺度的变化到关注尺度差异,是这一生态系统服务权衡坐标系分类法有待进一步解决的问题。
再次,从作用方向及驱动机制来看,生态系统服务间的影响可以划分为单向或者双向,两种生态系统服务间权衡或协同关系的产生可能源于共同影响因素的间接驱动,也可能是生态系统服务之间直接的相互作用[13]。该分类体系刻画了不同生态系统服务相互作用的过程和方式,能够加深对多重生态系统服务作用关系及其背后驱动机制的理解[25, 29]。但是由于一些间接驱动作用往往不易度量,因而单双向的分类往往适用于处理各项生态系统服务形成机理均已明确的权衡关系。
此外,生态系统服务的权衡关系还可根据所涉及生态系统服务的类型差异分为3类：① 同一种生态系统服务在不同利益群体或时空单元的分配权衡,关注的重点在于不同地域或时间上生态系统服务消费方对于生态系统服务的需求偏好,强调根据供给需求的差异性进行服务的再分配,从而实现区域整体生态系统服务惠益的最大化;② 同一种类生态系统服务之间的权衡,如供给服务间的权衡、调节服务间的权衡等;③ 不同种类生态系统服务之间的权衡。千年生态系统服务评估最优先关注供给服务,因其所提供的有形商品能直接转化为人类福祉,但人类这样的选择偏好使得供给服务与其他类型服务之间的矛盾愈发剧烈,研究普遍表明供给服务与调节服务、文化服务存在明显的权衡关系[30-31],而协同关系普遍存在于同一种类的服务之间,如调节服务之间或者文化服务之间。
2 生态系统服务权衡认知
厘定生态系统服务的权衡关系是生态系统服务管理的基本前提。近二十余年来,国内外****围绕生态系统服务权衡的关系识别及制图、多时空尺度特征进行了大量研究[21]。通过不同尺度案例认知生态系统服务之间的多重非线性关联、权衡关系的特征及其驱动机制,从而切实解决生态系统服务管理过程中的诸多矛盾,实现不同时空尺度生态系统服务可持续供给。2.1 生态系统服务权衡关系的识别与表达
针对各项生态系统服务的物质量评估是识别服务间权衡关系的重要前提,主要的评估方法有定量指标法和综合模型法,两种方法的准确性都与指标的选取密不可分。定量指标法通过挑选可操作、可转换的指标,设计相应的算法来表征生态系统服务,是国内外****运用最为广泛的生态系统服务评估方法。该方法简便易操作,能够辨识生态系统服务供给能力的强弱,强调表征生态系统服务相对量值的准确性和实用性,但其在生态系统服务绝对量值的准确评估方面还有待完善[32]。模型模拟通过机理或统计模型计算出不同生态系统服务的物理量或价值量,从而实现生态系统服务的定量评估。模型法考虑生态系统服务形成的内在机制,但在运行过程中进行大量的简化。并且,由于生态系统服务的评估和模拟中很难充分获取各项参数,模型评估中的不确定性和误差在所难免[32]。定量指标法和模型法主要适用于供给服务、调节服务和支持服务的定量化评估,而文化服务的无形和非物质特征使其难以进行客观定量表征,更难以在空间上进行分析描述,发展更为滞后,更多地依据实地走访、问卷调查,结合等级评价与专家打分等方法实现定量化评估[33-34]。目前,用于评估生态系统服务的模型主要包括InVEST、SolVES、ARIES、UFORE和MIMES等模型。其中,InVEST模型由一系列模块和算法组成,涵盖多种生态系统服务过程,可用于模拟土地利用/覆被变化情景下生态系统服务的变化,由于操作简便,得以广泛应用于生态系统服务权衡分析中。生态系统服务权衡关系的研究主要依赖空间制图和统计分析。空间制图能够获取生态系统服务间的关系类型及区域范围,常用方法包括叠置分析和生态系统服务簇分析等。以空间制图的方式呈现生态系统服务的评估结果,可以更有效地展示生态系统服务权衡的空间分异特征。生态系统服务供给制图对生态系统生产产品与提供服务的能力进行空间可视化,需求制图则代表着人类对生态系统产品与服务的消费与使用,两者共同作为权衡决策初始阶段对于生态系统服务综合评估的制图基础。通过生态系统服务供给与需求均衡分析度量生态系统服务赤字或盈余,可以为生态系统服务管理决策者提供权衡利弊的依据[35]。叠置分析大多借助于GIS工具进行不同生态系统服务供给的空间叠置,识别多重生态系统服务供给区,并在决策权衡阶段进一步将生态系统服务供给与需求的制图结果进行叠加运算,最终生成区域供需均衡状况图,明晰服务盈余状况的空间格局。生态系统服务簇分析则通过综合利用主成分分析、空间自相关和聚类分析等方法在空间上划分不同的生态系统服务组合类型,不仅在分析相关联的不同生态系统服务时能够避免出现重复计算[11, 36-37],而且也使土地利用与多种生态系统服务间的关联分析成为可能[38-39]。
生态系统服务权衡研究中常用的统计分析包括相关分析和局部统计分析。其中,相关分析通过观察两种生态系统服务间相关系数的绝对值大小及正负方向,来判断服务间是否存在依存关系,并探讨相关性的程度和方向[24]。局部统计分析用于识别生态系统服务供需的重点区域,如利用空间自相关方法辨识同时具有多项高水平生态系统服务供给的热点区或冷点区,在此基础上绘制多重生态系统服务供给的空间分布图[40]。在实际的研究中,往往将统计分析和空间制图相结合,从而完成多种生态系统服务的综合评估和关系探讨。近年来,一些新的统计模型与指标逐渐被引入到权衡关系研究中,如均方根误差[41]、生产可能性边界[42]等。其中,均方根误差分析通过量化单个生态系统服务标准差与平均生态系统服务标准差之间的差异,描述了距离平均生态系统服务标准差的分散幅度;生产可能性边界作为资源配置与利用的强解释性分析工具,通过分析生态系统服务潜在的最优组合,确定两两之间最优配置点,实现生态系统服务的优化配置与效率生产。这些指标能够更加细致地刻画生态系统服务之间相互影响的程度,扩充了统计分析的使用范畴。
2.2 生态系统服务权衡关系的尺度效应
生态系统服务之间的权衡关系具有空间异质性和时间动态性,且随着时空尺度的推移发生改变[43]。权衡关系的尺度依赖性源于生态系统服务供给与消费过程中的尺度关联。生态系统服务的形成与供给所涵盖的时空尺度不尽相同,粮食、遗传资源等有形商品的供给服务,土壤形成、侵蚀控制等部分调节服务主要在局地尺度发挥作用,而气候调节、养分循环等更多的调节、支持服务则在大范围内服务于整个地球生命系统。生态系统服务作用的时间跨度也存在固有的差异性,如病害调控、洪涝减缓在短期内成效显著,而水源涵养则在长时间内发挥效用。不同空间尺度的利益群体对生态系统服务的认知和需求各有侧重,基于此的管理决策进一步加剧了生态系统服务之间权衡关系的变化。一般而言,局地居民更关注食物供给、美学欣赏等能直接享用的初级服务价值[44-45],而区域、国家甚至全球尺度的决策者从更高层次的视野角度强调水源涵养、气候调节等与全社会福祉长期相关的生态系统服务。因此,在决策时需要综合考虑不同利益相关者的偏好,权衡服务的侧重点和优先级,以实现整体生态系统服务惠益的最大化。生态系统服务跨尺度的空间流动进一步突破了服务权衡的空间范畴,建立起供给区和受益区的时空关联,一方面依据不同区域对于同一生态系统服务的需求程度开展宏观调控实现区域资源共享,另一方面也承受着调配区域多重生态系统服务权衡的压力。例如,南水北调工程实施过程中,水源涵养、土壤形成与保护和废物处理等流域上下游共享的生态系统服务间的关系面临着改变的风险[46]。权衡关系来源于生态系统服务管理决策选择,背后的经济获利与不同利益群体息息相关[47],而不同利益群体对于生态系统服务的优先级也会随着时间的变化做出相应的调整。时间尺度上的生态系统服务权衡与代际之间生态系统服务享用的公平性紧密相关,中国三北防护林的建设即是与国家发展战略调整息息相关的跨时间尺度生态系统服务提升措施。
生态系统服务的尺度关联使得生态系统服务的权衡关系在不同时空尺度的表现不尽相同,即使同一对生态系统服务在不同区域、不同研究尺度上的权衡关系也会存在很大差异。以固碳释氧和水源涵养这一对生态系统服务为例,图1展示了研究者在大、中、小尺度上得到的这两者的权衡关系[31, 39, 48-52],并将时间尺度简化为变化量（两个年份生态系统服务定量化指标之差）和固定量（一个年份的生态系统服务定量化指标）。固碳释氧和水源涵养间的关系具有明显的尺度效应,在中、小尺度上两者的关系既有权衡也有协同,而在更大尺度上（空间范围1×106 km2以上）只表现出协同关系。此外,虽然空间尺度一致,但在不同时间尺度的权衡表现却不一致。因此,在多个尺度上全面探讨生态系统服务的权衡关系,才能系统了解权衡关系形成的内在机制。
显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT图1固碳释氧与水源涵养服务权衡关系的尺度效应
-->Fig. 1Scale effects of trade-offs between carbon sequestration and water conservation
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3 生态系统服务权衡决策
在生态系统服务权衡认知的基础上,对生态系统、景观管理进行科学决策,是保障区域可持续发展的有力支撑。Kates等[53]认为可持续性科学（Sustainability Science）是指“在局地、区域、全球尺度上研究自然和社会动态关系的科学,是为可持续发展提供理论基础和技术手段的科学”。以景观为对象,景观可持续性是指特定景观所具有的、能够长期而稳定地提供景观服务、从而维护和改善本区域人类福祉的综合能力[54-55]。因此,在景观和区域尺度上研究气候变化、土地利用和社会经济因素的影响,厘清生态系统服务之间的权衡关系,正确评估生态系统服务供给和利益相关者的生态系统服务需求,有助于制定出适应区域生态系统与人类社会可持续发展的最优决策,从而维持和改进景观生态系统服务和人类福祉之间的关系[56],实现提高特定区域人类福祉的最终目标。3.1 生态系统服务权衡决策框架
生态系统服务权衡决策的理论框架如图2所示。提高人类福祉是生态系统服务权衡决策的最终目标。MA[6]将人类福祉概括为5个方面的内容：维持高质量生活所需要的物质、健康、良好的社会关系、安全、自由权和选择权。生态系统通过人为或者自然的过程提供多样的服务,继而经由消费满足人类的需求,从而转化为人类福祉。为了全面考虑不同群体的福祉需求,人们需要权衡多种生态系统服务之间的关系,以实现整体惠益的最大化[57-58]。由于生态系统服务惠益对福祉的贡献具有边际递减效应,福祉程度的高低取决于惠益在不同需求层次上的分布状况,或需求的满足程度[59]。当不同层次的人类福祉存在权衡关系时,以福祉的多层次耦合为最终评判标准。
显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT图2生态系统服务权衡决策概念框架
-->Fig. 2Relationship among the concepts related with decision-making on ecosystem service trade-offs
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生态补偿或生态系统服务付费,是生态系统服务管理的重要途径,指根据生态系统服务的价值量,由生态系统服务的获益方向环境保护或生态建设者支付费用的行为[41]。生态系统服务权衡将生态系统服务的供给与需求有机地联系起来,为生态补偿明晰了生态系统服务的供给方和获益方,核心利益相关者的确定使得补偿主客体的界定更有针对性,后续补偿标准的建立、补偿方式和途径的研究均围绕利益相关者展开[60]。根据不同生态系统服务权衡关系随时间发生的变化,确定不同生态系统服务变化之间的潜在因果关系,可以为制定科学合理的生态补偿政策提供决策依据[61]。具体而言,生态系统服务供给的区域差异性导致不同社会群体获得的服务惠益的分配与消费存在偏差,生态系统服务流则导致供给方和受益方存在空间非一致性。此外,生态补偿工程本身也面临着多种生态系统服务的重要性权衡,利益相关者群体对生态系统服务的认知和支付意愿的态度也不尽相同。因此,有必要明确服务所产生的惠益在什么时间和地点被哪些利益相关群体所享用,分析不同生态系统服务对受益者的直接贡献,并纳入经济收益权衡的决策分析,从而为生态补偿标准的制定确定生态系统服务价值空间流动的路径和规模。
生态系统服务权衡决策存在于生态系统服务流的网络之中。生态系统服务的供给和消费是生态系统服务空间流动的起点和终点,通过复杂多变的网络路径,从供给方出发最终到达受益方。生态系统服务供给的权衡决策会改变服务的流向、流量,而在不同的人类与自然耦合系统之间,又存在着复杂的传送、接受和外溢作用,远程耦合框架为测度不同系统中生态系统服务变化关联提供了一个广泛的分析方法[62]。因此,生态系统服务权衡决策需要高度关注生态系统服务的空间流动,并将不同地域社会-生态系统的远程耦合纳入决策分析框架。
3.2 生态系统服务权衡决策方法
针对特定区域复杂的生态系统服务进行权衡关系科学管理是权衡研究的最终目的。在权衡决策概念框架的基础上,可以进一步借助情景分析、多目标分析等手段,将权衡结果应用到生态系统服务的集成管理与优化决策之中。（1）情景分析
自然生态系统是一种具有多稳态机制、自适应的非线性复杂系统,其发展和演化往往难以精准预测。情景分析针对影响系统的关键因素,通过制定若干生态保护或社会经济发展优先或两者兼顾的未来情景,分析多种生态系统服务的时空动态变化,是目前权衡关系研究最为常见的一种方法[25]。具体而言,情景分析不仅能够判断何种情形下能取得特定生态系统服务最大化,而且可用来揭示不同时空尺度上生态系统服务权衡关系的潜在差异,从而辅助决策者清楚地选择管理措施。情景的选取需要结合当地实际情况,同时加入研究者的建议方案,设置不同参照情景,对比分析每一类情景下生态系统服务间的权衡关系,以生态系统服务惠益最大化为目的,为管理者提供决策依据。
在实际的案例研究中,往往通过土地覆被类型的变化反映不同的生态系统服务权衡情景。常用的土地利用模拟手段包括基于经验统计方法的CLUE-S模型、基于多智能主体分析方法的ABM模型、基于栅格邻域关系分析方法的CA模型和基于土地系统结构变化及空间格局演替分析的DLS模型等。例如,杨晓楠等[42]运用CA-Markov模型模拟了关中-天水经济区2030年计划情景、保护情景和开发情景下的3种土地利用格局,在不同情景下研究净初级生产力、保水以及土壤侵蚀三者之间的空间分布和相互之间的权衡关系,最终得出保护情景下提供的生态系统服务最高;Butler等[63]评估了澳大利亚大堡礁地区4种土地利用情景下水质调节服务与其他10种服务之间的权衡与协同关系。Bai等[38]基于InVEST模型分析了河北白洋淀地区在无农用地转换、无城市扩张、农业发展、林业发展以及河岸造林5种情景下农业生产、水电生产和水质量维持3种生态系统服务之间的权衡关系及其土地利用优化方案;Meehan等[64]应用InVEST模型探讨了美国中西部滨岸生态系统多年生牧草种植和玉米种植两种管理情景下粮食生产、牧草生产、能量产出、淡水供给、N/P污染净化、水质净化、昆虫授粉等7种生态系统服务价值及其总价值的变化,研究结果表明种植多年生牧草会造成粮食生产和牧草生产等供给服务减少75%,但其他5种服务均有不同程度增加（6%~33%）。
（2）多目标分析
多目标分析法适用于多重用途且影响因子复杂的系统分析[15],能够综合考虑多种利益相关群体的选择偏好、兼顾多种生态系统服务的供给,抑制和降低消极影响,从而实现生态系统服务惠益的整体最优[65]。该方法对于权重的设定、因素的选取需要利益相关方的共同参与,这些在保障决策主体参与、提高决策依据的同时,也对结果的不确定性产生了影响[66-68]。
多目标分析作为生态系统服务评估与土地利用决策之间的桥梁,能够兼顾多个利益群体的意愿和需求、避免顾此失彼的决策后果,是生态系统服务优化管理的有效途径[69]。Bekele等[70]将SWAT模型与多目标进化算法SPEA2相结合,在美国伊利诺伊州模拟了农业生产及非点源污染控制等多种生态系统服务,并提出权衡方案;Liu等[71]通过构建多目标决策框架,将多种生态系统服务供给的空间指标和公众对于生态系统服务管理的认知及偏好相结合,综合识别了澳大利亚墨累达令盆地21个子流域生态系统服务供给中潜在的协同和权衡关系,为未来流域尺度水资源综合管理提供决策支持;Segura等[72]提出了一种新的生态系统服务协同管理和评估的方法体系,基于层次分析法和偏好顺序结构评估法考虑决策者、技术人员以及其他利益相关者和当地居民偏好、需求,综合权衡了西班牙巴伦西亚自然公园网络中供给、维持和与居民直接关联等3类生态系统服务的关系;Hu等[73]以黄土高原燕沟流域为例,基于其所开发的生态系统服务综合评估与优化工具——SAORES模型,对水源涵养、土壤保持和粮食生产3种关键生态系统服务的变化进行了评估,并分析其权衡关系,进行土地利用配置的多目标优化。
4 生态系统服务权衡研究展望
近年来国内外有关生态系统服务权衡的研究数量不断增加,内容涵盖不同时空尺度和服务类型,研究的流程环节主要包括生态系统服务权衡的定量表征、时空监测、机理解析及政策响应（图3）。其中,定量表征为生态系统服务权衡的时空监测提供数据支持;时空动态既是生态系统服务权衡多尺度研究的内在耦合,又是生态系统服务权衡时空异质性的外在表现;机理解析是生态系统服务权衡研究的难点所在,也是后续相关研究开展的重要前提和理论基础;情景决策是整合上述3个方面的实践应用出口,将生态系统服务权衡与人类福祉直接关联,进一步为多重生态系统服务的优化及管理提供决策依据。目前,对于生态系统服务权衡的研究多为案例分析,如何将生态系统服务权衡的科学认知转化到决策应用仍缺乏有效的途径,但以下3个方面亟需重点强化：通过生态系统服务多尺度耦合推动时空监测结果的尺度关联;生态系统服务流作为生态系统服务评估从定量到定位的表征,借助远程耦合揭示作用机理;面向生态系统服务供给与消费的空间非一致性,以生态补偿作为特定情景下生态系统服务权衡的决策手段。
显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT图3生态系统服务权衡核心研究内容
-->Fig. 3Key topics in trade-offs among ecosystem services
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4.1 生态系统服务权衡多尺度关联
生态系统服务可以在不同的时空尺度上产生[45],而不同尺度生态本底及社会经济条件的差异则会造成生态系统服务供给和需求的类型、能力水平、空间特征等多方面的差异性,进一步影响生态系统服务间作用关系随尺度的改变而发生变化。单一生态系统服务在每种时空尺度上的表现可能不尽相同[74],只有在特定尺度上才会完全显现其主导效应,并且各时空尺度间的表现存在关联。然而,目前不同尺度间特定生态系统服务演变的研究较少,难以明晰不同空间尺度上服务的影响关系、不同时间尺度上服务的变化强度,不同尺度间耦合的评判标准及内在机理尚不清晰。因此,量化不同尺度上单一生态系统服务的供给、需求及空间格局,进而探讨多种生态系统服务间相互作用关系的尺度变异,构建能够整合多尺度多类型生态系统服务相互作用的综合模型将是未来生态系统服务权衡研究的重点方向之一。如今越来越多的生态系统服务权衡研究向空间化和动态化的方向发展[16],以海量、高维度、数据变量复杂为特征的大数据,使得生态系统服务多尺度评估工作成为了可 能[75]。大数据能够避免小数据样本带来的随机性误差,多次评估时空连续性、可比性更强。一方面,生态系统服务在不同尺度上的关联关系能借助大数据通过尺度转换得以全面认知,服务的多尺度时间、空间转换及传递机理由此明晰;另一方面,在考虑主导服务的基础上,评判生态系统服务多尺度的耦合标准,协调不同尺度上的服务供给,满足不同利益群体对于不同类型服务的需求,实现区域生态系统服务供需的平衡也将成为可能。
4.2 生态系统服务流与远程耦合
生态系统服务供给与需求的空间均衡逐渐成为研究热点。根据生态系统服务的流动性,可以将生态系统服务划分为原位性服务（服务原地生产、原地消费,如大部分的调节、支持和文化服务等）和流动性服务（供给与消费的地点不一致,在空间上可转移,如大部分的供给服务等）[60]。服务供给和消费空间不一致性的存在,在权衡决策时更需要明晰供给、消费的对象及其作用途径,进而确定生态补偿的主客体。作为生态系统服务供给区与受益区的时空连接,生态系统服务流刻画了生态系统服务从产生、传输到使用的整个过程[58]。科学认知生态系统服务流,对于理解实际的生态系统服务传递、满足人类对于生态系统服务的需求至关重要[76]。通过量化不同时空尺度下服务的供给、流向、流量、流速、耗散和消费,探讨不同生态系统服务之间及不同生态系统服务流之间的权衡/协同关系,不仅有助于进一步认识复杂多变的服务流网络,更能为制定生态补偿政策、理清生态系统服务变化对人类福祉的影响提供科学依据[77]。目前,生态系统服务流的研究多停留在概念探讨阶段,多将生态系统服务的供给和消费在空间上剥离开来单独描绘,缺少较为完善的方法论,几乎没有对于生态系统服务流动过程的动态刻画。生态系统的复杂性在于其内在结构和功能的空间异质性、时间动态性、尺度多样性以及多种因素的非线性相互作用关系。在今后的研究中,有必要在多尺度、多因素、跨区域、跨边界的思路下逐步探索生态系统服务流空间制图及特征分析的理论方法,在长时间序列上运用“远程耦合-时空量序构”等方法论探索生态系统服务流的动态变化及其相互作用。
4.3 生态系统服务消费与生态补偿
生态补偿作为生态系统服务权衡决策实施的有力保障,有效平衡了环境服务提供者（卖方）和补偿支付者（买方）之间的利益矛盾。近年来,国内外的研究主要集中在生态补偿概念的辨析、补偿标准的制定、补偿的方式及效应评估等关键问题,并逐渐趋向构建能够协调不同类型生态系统服务的供给和消费、兼顾多重利益相关者、实现社会和生态环境目标动态平衡的生态补偿机制。然而,由于生态系统服务权衡关系的空间异质性、时间动态性和尺度依赖性,面向不同区域、不同尺度的生态系统服务权衡研究,由于指标选取、计算方法等不同,总体上自成体系,造成了彼此之间研究结果的较大差异,互相兼容性及可验证性较弱。这不仅导致生态系统服务权衡研究成果之间难以横向比较、互相借鉴,而且不同研究之间的纵向递进关系亦不明晰。虽然针对特定地区前期的基础研究业已完成,但难以直接应用于后期生态补偿决策的制定。为了将生态补偿政策与生态系统服务权衡的结果更好地结合,权衡研究不仅需要进一步细化相关利益群体的划分,更需要在充分理解不同群体真实需求的基础上,明晰权衡所服务的对象、涉及的内容及最终的目的,输出可操作、可验证的生态系统服务管理及优化方案。将利益群体纳入研究过程能够潜在地提升生态系统服务的识别、评估和管理水平[78]。此外,更需要探究生态系统服务权衡关系在不同空间尺度上的差异及时间尺度上的演替趋势。在此基础上,建立一套生态系统服务权衡与生态补偿相互兼容的研究方法及术语体系,继而考虑补偿主体与补偿客体的利益均衡途径,基于整体最大化原则因地制宜构建行之有效的生态补偿模式。
The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
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| [1] | . Ideally, both ecosystem service and human development policies should improve human well-being through the conservation of ecosystems that provide valuable services. However, program costs and benefits to multiple stakeholders, and how they change through time, are rarely carefully analyzed. We examine one of China's new ecosystem service protection and human development policies: the Relocation and Settlement Program of Southern Shaanxi Province (RSP), which pays households who opt voluntarily to resettle from mountainous areas. The RSP aims to reduce disaster risk, restore important ecosystem services, and improve human well-being. We use household surveys and biophysical data in an integrated economic cost-benefit analysis for multiple stakeholders. We project that the RSP will result in positive net benefits to the municipal government, and to cross-region and global beneficiaries over the long run along with environment improvement, including improved water quality, soil erosion control, and carbon sequestration. However, there are significant short-run relocation costs for local residents so that poor households may have difficulty participating because they lack the resources to pay the initial costs of relocation. Greater subsidies and subsequent supports after relocation are necessary to reduce the payback period of resettled households in the long run. Compensation from downstream beneficiaries for improved water and from carbon trades could be channeled into reducing relocation costs for the poor and sharing the burden of RSP implementation. The effectiveness of the RSP could also be greatly strengthened by early investment in developing human capital and environment-friendly jobs and establishing long-term mechanisms for securing program goals. These challenges and potential solutions pervade ecosystem service efforts globally. |
| [2] | . 生态系统服务是国际生态学研究的前沿和热点，表现出向生态系统服务机理和区域集成方法两大方向发展的趋势。开展陆地生态系统服务研究，是生态系统恢复、生态功能区划和建立生态补偿机制、保障国家生态安全的重大战略需求。面向国家重大需求和生态系统服．务研究的国际前沿，以主要陆地生态系统为对象，“中国主要陆地生态系统服务功能与生态安全”项目拟解决3个科学问题：①生态系统结构-过程-服务功能的相互作用机理；②生态系统服务功能的尺度特征与多尺度关联；③生态系统服务功能评估的指标与模型。通过上述研究，发展生态系统服务研究的理论与方法，为国家的生态建设和环境保护提供科学支撑。 . 生态系统服务是国际生态学研究的前沿和热点，表现出向生态系统服务机理和区域集成方法两大方向发展的趋势。开展陆地生态系统服务研究，是生态系统恢复、生态功能区划和建立生态补偿机制、保障国家生态安全的重大战略需求。面向国家重大需求和生态系统服．务研究的国际前沿，以主要陆地生态系统为对象，“中国主要陆地生态系统服务功能与生态安全”项目拟解决3个科学问题：①生态系统结构-过程-服务功能的相互作用机理；②生态系统服务功能的尺度特征与多尺度关联；③生态系统服务功能评估的指标与模型。通过上述研究，发展生态系统服务研究的理论与方法，为国家的生态建设和环境保护提供科学支撑。 |
| [3] | . 生态系统服务研究是当前国际上科学研究的热点和前沿。近年来我国生态系统服务研究取得了较快进展。为了全面认识与介绍国内生态系统服务研究的状况与成果,促进国际生态系统服务研究的交流与合作,论文首先回顾了我国生态系统服务研究的4个时期,并简要概括了所取得的成就和存在的问题,最后指出,中国生态系统服务的研究应该尽快由当前的概算式研究转向更深层次的研究,尤其要重点关注生态系统功能的基础理论研究、评估指标与方法的标准化、生态服务价值动态评估模型研究、评估结果在决策过程中的应用研究以及生态系统服务的市场化机制研究。 . 生态系统服务研究是当前国际上科学研究的热点和前沿。近年来我国生态系统服务研究取得了较快进展。为了全面认识与介绍国内生态系统服务研究的状况与成果,促进国际生态系统服务研究的交流与合作,论文首先回顾了我国生态系统服务研究的4个时期,并简要概括了所取得的成就和存在的问题,最后指出,中国生态系统服务的研究应该尽快由当前的概算式研究转向更深层次的研究,尤其要重点关注生态系统功能的基础理论研究、评估指标与方法的标准化、生态服务价值动态评估模型研究、评估结果在决策过程中的应用研究以及生态系统服务的市场化机制研究。 |
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| [5] | . The services of ecological systens and the natural capilal stocks that produce them are critical to the functiouing of the Erarth's life-support system.They contribule to human welfare.both direetly and indireetly,and therefore represent part of the totaleeononic value of the planet.We have estimated the eurrent biosphere.the value(most of which is ontside the market)is estimated to be in the range of USS16-54trillion(1012)per year,with an average of USS33 trillion per year.Because of the nature of the uncertainties,this must be considered a mininum estimate.Global gross national produet total is around USS18 trillion per year. |
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| [7] | . 生态系统服务作为生态学与地理学的研究前沿和热点，受到众多****与研究组织的关注。土地利用变化通过对生态系统格局与过程的影响，改变着生态系统产品与服务的提供能力。本文对土地利用变化与生态系统服务相关研究背景和概念进行了介绍，总结了生态系统服务评估方法的特点，对目前研究中存在的问题进行了分析，展望了未来的研究趋势。加强土地利用变化驱动下生态系统过程与服务的相互关系、生态系统服务之间的相互关系以及生态系统服务的区域集成与优化是生态系统服务研究的前沿科学问题，这些科学问题的解决将为生态系统管理提供重要的理论和方法支持。 . 生态系统服务作为生态学与地理学的研究前沿和热点，受到众多****与研究组织的关注。土地利用变化通过对生态系统格局与过程的影响，改变着生态系统产品与服务的提供能力。本文对土地利用变化与生态系统服务相关研究背景和概念进行了介绍，总结了生态系统服务评估方法的特点，对目前研究中存在的问题进行了分析，展望了未来的研究趋势。加强土地利用变化驱动下生态系统过程与服务的相互关系、生态系统服务之间的相互关系以及生态系统服务的区域集成与优化是生态系统服务研究的前沿科学问题，这些科学问题的解决将为生态系统管理提供重要的理论和方法支持。 |
| [8] | . 生态系统服务研究现已成为国内外的研究热点。回顾生态系统服务研究的历程可以发现,研究范式正在从自然科学研究范式向自然科学与社会科学综合研究范式转向。生态系统服务研究更加重视时空异质性、更加关注流动性与区域效应,更加强调生态系统服务对人类福祉的作用。在生态系统结构、过程与功能─服务─人类收益与福祉级联框架中,地理学的主要分支都可以找到自身的研究议题。在此过程中,逐渐建构起来的生态系统服务地理学,不仅可以为生态系统服务研究提供学科支撑,同时可以丰富和拓展地理学的研究内容。本文在评述生态系统服务研究历程和发展趋势的基础上,分析了地理学参与生态系统服务研究的逻辑必然性以及面临的机遇与挑战。为了推进生态系统服务研究的＂地理化＂转向,我们提议发展生态系统服务地理学,并初步描绘了生态系统服务地理学的学科框架,包括定义、研究范畴、研究内容及主要研究议题等。 . 生态系统服务研究现已成为国内外的研究热点。回顾生态系统服务研究的历程可以发现,研究范式正在从自然科学研究范式向自然科学与社会科学综合研究范式转向。生态系统服务研究更加重视时空异质性、更加关注流动性与区域效应,更加强调生态系统服务对人类福祉的作用。在生态系统结构、过程与功能─服务─人类收益与福祉级联框架中,地理学的主要分支都可以找到自身的研究议题。在此过程中,逐渐建构起来的生态系统服务地理学,不仅可以为生态系统服务研究提供学科支撑,同时可以丰富和拓展地理学的研究内容。本文在评述生态系统服务研究历程和发展趋势的基础上,分析了地理学参与生态系统服务研究的逻辑必然性以及面临的机遇与挑战。为了推进生态系统服务研究的＂地理化＂转向,我们提议发展生态系统服务地理学,并初步描绘了生态系统服务地理学的学科框架,包括定义、研究范畴、研究内容及主要研究议题等。 |
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| [10] | . The rural space is increasingly valued for the multiple ecosystem services that it can deliver. For example, priorities in many lowland floodplains in England have changed in recent years from a focus on agricultural production towards environmental quality and the management of flood risk, in part linked to climate change. Recent concerns about food security, however, may reinstate the importance of agricultural production in these fertile areas. This paper explores changes in rural land use in floodplains by measuring the range of ecosystem services provided under different management scenarios. Generic land use scenarios consider management options that focus on single objectives, such as maximising agricultural production, maximising biodiversity and maximising flood storage capacity. Indicators are developed to value the ecosystem services provided by floodplains under each scenario, identifying potential synergy and conflict. This integrated ecosystems approach can help to inform future policy and practice for floodplain management, hopefully in ways that appeal to key stakeholders. |
| [11] | . Ecosystem service (ES) trade-offs arise from management choices made by humans, which can change the type, magnitude, and relative mix of services provided by ecosystems. Trade-offs occur when the provision of one ES is reduced as a consequence of increased use of another ES. In some cases, a trade-off may be an explicit choice; but in others, trade-offs arise without premeditation or even awareness that they are taking place. Trade-offs in ES can be classified along three axes: spatial scale, temporal scale, and reversibility. Spatial scale refers to whether the effects of the trade-off are felt locally or at a distant location. Temporal scale refers to whether the effects take place relatively rapidly or slowly. Reversibility expresses the likelihood that the perturbed ES may return to its original state if the perturbation ceases. Across all four Millennium Ecosystem Assessment scenarios and selected case study examples, trade-off decisions show a preference for provisioning, regulating, or cultural services (in that order). Supporting services are more likely to be #8220;taken for granted.#8221; Cultural ES are almost entirely unquantified in scenario modeling; therefore, the calculated model results do not fully capture losses of these services that occur in the scenarios. The quantitative scenario models primarily capture the services that are perceived by society as more important#8212;provisioning and regulating ecosystem services#8212;and thus do not fully capture trade-offs of cultural and supporting services. Successful management policies will be those that incorporate lessons learned from prior decisions into future management actions. Managers should complement their actions with monitoring programs that, in addition to monitoring the short-term provisions of services, also monitor the long-term evolution of slowly changing variables. Policies can then be developed to take into account ES trade-offs at multiple spatial and temporal scales. Successful strategies will recognize the inherent complexities of ecosystem management and will work to develop policies that minimize the effects of ES trade-offs. |
| [12] | . Agricultural ecosystems provide humans with food, forage, bioenergy and pharmaceuticals and are essential to human wellbeing. These systems rely on ecosystem services provided by natural ecosystems, including pollination, biological pest control, maintenance of soil structure and fertility, nutrient cycling and hydrological services. Preliminary assessments indicate that the value of these ecosystem services to agriculture is enormous and often underappreciated. Agroecosystems also produce a variety of ecosystem services, such as regulation of soil and water quality, carbon sequestration, support for biodiversity and cultural services. Depending on management practices, agriculture can also be the source of numerous disservices, including loss of wildlife habitat, nutrient runoff, sedimentation of waterways, greenhouse gas emissions, and pesticide poisoning of humans and non-target species. The tradeoffs that may occur between provisioning services and other ecosystem services and disservices should be evaluated in terms of spatial scale, temporal scale and reversibility. As more effective methods for valuing ecosystem services become available, the potential for ‘win–win’ scenarios increases. Under all scenarios, appropriate agricultural management practices are critical to realizing the benefits of ecosystem services and reducing disservices from agricultural activities. |
| [13] | . Ecosystem management that attempts to maximize the production of one ecosystem service often results in substantial declines in the provision of other ecosystem services. For this reason, recent studies have called for increased attention to development of a theoretical understanding behind the relationships among ecosystem services. Here, we review the literature on ecosystem services and propose a typology of relationships between ecosystem services based on the role of drivers and the interactions between services. We use this typology to develop three propositions to help drive ecological science towards a better understanding of the relationships among multiple ecosystem services. Research which aims to understand the relationships among multiple ecosystem services and the mechanisms behind these relationships will improve our ability to sustainably manage landscapes to provide multiple ecosystem services. |
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| [15] | . 生态系统提供了人类生活所需的各种产品,支撑和维护人们赖以生存 的生态环境.由于人类对自然生态系统认识不足和使用不当,各种生态系统服务之间出现了冲突矛盾,限制着彼此的发挥,因此,权衡不同生态系统服务之间的关系 具有重要意义.文章首先分析了冲突权衡(trade-off)产生的原因、类型差异和研究意义,接下来总结了冲突权衡分析方法进展、应用情况、有待解决的 问题和未来重点研究方向.尽管对于生态系统服务的认识,尤其是价值评估已经得到了充分研究,但是生态系统服务的冲突与权衡还处于起步阶段,文章总结了当前 生态系统服务权衡的热点问题,包括主要的权衡分析方法以及应用领域,提出展望和建议.未来的研究重点在以下2个方面:第一,深入研究各服务相互关联的作用 因子和作用机制；第二,如何综合运用已知条件和方法,构建一个科学合理的权衡模式. . 生态系统提供了人类生活所需的各种产品,支撑和维护人们赖以生存 的生态环境.由于人类对自然生态系统认识不足和使用不当,各种生态系统服务之间出现了冲突矛盾,限制着彼此的发挥,因此,权衡不同生态系统服务之间的关系 具有重要意义.文章首先分析了冲突权衡(trade-off)产生的原因、类型差异和研究意义,接下来总结了冲突权衡分析方法进展、应用情况、有待解决的 问题和未来重点研究方向.尽管对于生态系统服务的认识,尤其是价值评估已经得到了充分研究,但是生态系统服务的冲突与权衡还处于起步阶段,文章总结了当前 生态系统服务权衡的热点问题,包括主要的权衡分析方法以及应用领域,提出展望和建议.未来的研究重点在以下2个方面:第一,深入研究各服务相互关联的作用 因子和作用机制；第二,如何综合运用已知条件和方法,构建一个科学合理的权衡模式. |
| [16] | . 生态系统服务之间存在着此消彼长的权衡关系或彼此增益的协同关系,科学理解和权衡这些作用关系有利于指导生态系统管理实践,也对实现社会经济发展和生态保护的＂双赢＂目标具有重要意义。系统梳理了国内外现有的生态系统服务权衡研究工作,归纳总结了权衡研究的主要方法：统计学、空间分析、情景模拟和服务流动性分析方法;对权衡研究中常用的生态系统服务权衡模型进行了机理介绍和应用分析;进一步提出了权衡研究的理论框架和重要切入点,即生态系统服务的时空尺度特征、相互作用、效益和驱动机制。对生态系统服务权衡未来的进一步深化研究进行了展望,旨在为国内相关研究提供启迪和参考。 . 生态系统服务之间存在着此消彼长的权衡关系或彼此增益的协同关系,科学理解和权衡这些作用关系有利于指导生态系统管理实践,也对实现社会经济发展和生态保护的＂双赢＂目标具有重要意义。系统梳理了国内外现有的生态系统服务权衡研究工作,归纳总结了权衡研究的主要方法：统计学、空间分析、情景模拟和服务流动性分析方法;对权衡研究中常用的生态系统服务权衡模型进行了机理介绍和应用分析;进一步提出了权衡研究的理论框架和重要切入点,即生态系统服务的时空尺度特征、相互作用、效益和驱动机制。对生态系统服务权衡未来的进一步深化研究进行了展望,旨在为国内相关研究提供启迪和参考。 |
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| [19] | . Despite broad interest in using payment for ecosystem services to promote changes in the use of natural capital, there are few expost assessments of impacts of payment for ecosystem services programs on ecosystem service provision, program cost, and changes in livelihoods resulting from program participation. In this paper, we evaluate the Paddy Land-to-Dry Land (PLDL) program in Beijing, China, and associated changes in service providers' livelihood activities. The PLDL is a land use conversion program that aims to protect water quality and quantity for the only surface water reservoir that serves Beijing, China's capital city with nearly 20 million residents. Our analysis integrates hydrologic data with household survey data and shows that the PLDL generates benefits of improved water quantity and quality that exceed the costs of reduced agricultural output. The PLDL has an overall benefit-cost ratio of 1.5, and both downstream beneficiaries and upstream providers gain from the program. Household data show that changes in livelihood activities may offset some of the desired effects of the program through increased expenditures on agricultural fertilizers. Overall, however, reductions in fertilizer leaching from land use change dominate so that the program still has a positive net impact on water quality. This program is a successful example of water users paying upstream landholders to improve water quantity and quality through land use change. Program evaluation also highlights the importance of considering behavioral changes by program participants. |
| [20] | . 生态补偿是以市场机制解决环境外部性问题的方法,其典型特征是通过经济激励而实现生态系统保护和减贫的双赢,因此在世界范围内得到了广泛实施。权衡关系是生态补偿理论和实践中面临的问题和困境之一。生态补偿存在4种权衡关系：生态系统服务之间的权衡、监测成本与交易成本之间的权衡、公平与效率之间的权衡以及生态系统服务供应与减贫之间的权衡。分析了权衡关系的产生源于生态系统服务产生过程的不确定性、自然和社会经济系统的耦合性以及生态补偿实施背景的异质性,并提出应该在理论基础、实践模式和评估系统3个方面加强权衡关系的研究。 . 生态补偿是以市场机制解决环境外部性问题的方法,其典型特征是通过经济激励而实现生态系统保护和减贫的双赢,因此在世界范围内得到了广泛实施。权衡关系是生态补偿理论和实践中面临的问题和困境之一。生态补偿存在4种权衡关系：生态系统服务之间的权衡、监测成本与交易成本之间的权衡、公平与效率之间的权衡以及生态系统服务供应与减贫之间的权衡。分析了权衡关系的产生源于生态系统服务产生过程的不确定性、自然和社会经济系统的耦合性以及生态补偿实施背景的异质性,并提出应该在理论基础、实践模式和评估系统3个方面加强权衡关系的研究。 |
| [21] | . 生态系统服务是人类从生态系统中所获得的各种的惠益,自20世纪90年代提出后在国际上迅速成为生态学、地理学和环境科学等领域的研究前沿热点.联合国大会于2012年正式批准生物多样性与生态系统服务政府间科学政策平台(IPBES)建设,制定概念框架,确定近期研究主要任务包括三项快速的评估和两项政策决策性的评估.本文探索了生态系统服务权衡及区域集成方法,并以黄土高原地区为例进行了应用.研究结果表明,土地利用变化与土壤保持、碳固定具有正效应,与产水量间存在负效应;粮食生产能力与农业生产条件改善、人工投入增加和技术进步密切相关.生态系统服务之间的消长和权衡具有尺度依赖性,植被恢复的区域适宜性评价及水分效应方面还需要进一步研究. . 生态系统服务是人类从生态系统中所获得的各种的惠益,自20世纪90年代提出后在国际上迅速成为生态学、地理学和环境科学等领域的研究前沿热点.联合国大会于2012年正式批准生物多样性与生态系统服务政府间科学政策平台(IPBES)建设,制定概念框架,确定近期研究主要任务包括三项快速的评估和两项政策决策性的评估.本文探索了生态系统服务权衡及区域集成方法,并以黄土高原地区为例进行了应用.研究结果表明,土地利用变化与土壤保持、碳固定具有正效应,与产水量间存在负效应;粮食生产能力与农业生产条件改善、人工投入增加和技术进步密切相关.生态系统服务之间的消长和权衡具有尺度依赖性,植被恢复的区域适宜性评价及水分效应方面还需要进一步研究. |
| [22] | . 生态系统服务作为生态系统评估的核心领域,是生态学的研究热点。生态系统提供服务的形式与能力受人类活动强烈影响,反之,生态系统服务的变化又影响着人类相关决策的制定。不同生态系统服务之间很难甚至不可能同时达到利益最大化,即存在着不同程度此消彼长的竞争关系。此外,不同生态系统服务之间也可能形成相互促进或抑制的协同作用。探讨不同生态系统服务的相互关系（竞争与协同作用）,有利于揭示不同尺度利益相关方与生态系统服务之间的作用与反馈机制,避免生态系统服务的重复估算;同时可为制定与实施生态补偿、提高人类福祉提供科学依据,优化生态系统服务管理。综合研究了近期国外生态系统服务竞争关系与协同作用的相关文献,在简述当前生态系统服务研究若干问题的基础上,以生态系统服务竞争与协同为视角,厘清了生态系统服务竞争与协同的基本内涵,总结了生态系统服务竞争与协同的主要类型,探讨了生态系统服务竞争与协同的空间与时间尺度效应;介绍并总结了生态系统服务竞争与协同两种主要研究方法（生态-经济综合模型方法、基于土地利用的情景分析法）的特点与适应范围。 . 生态系统服务作为生态系统评估的核心领域,是生态学的研究热点。生态系统提供服务的形式与能力受人类活动强烈影响,反之,生态系统服务的变化又影响着人类相关决策的制定。不同生态系统服务之间很难甚至不可能同时达到利益最大化,即存在着不同程度此消彼长的竞争关系。此外,不同生态系统服务之间也可能形成相互促进或抑制的协同作用。探讨不同生态系统服务的相互关系（竞争与协同作用）,有利于揭示不同尺度利益相关方与生态系统服务之间的作用与反馈机制,避免生态系统服务的重复估算;同时可为制定与实施生态补偿、提高人类福祉提供科学依据,优化生态系统服务管理。综合研究了近期国外生态系统服务竞争关系与协同作用的相关文献,在简述当前生态系统服务研究若干问题的基础上,以生态系统服务竞争与协同为视角,厘清了生态系统服务竞争与协同的基本内涵,总结了生态系统服务竞争与协同的主要类型,探讨了生态系统服务竞争与协同的空间与时间尺度效应;介绍并总结了生态系统服务竞争与协同两种主要研究方法（生态-经济综合模型方法、基于土地利用的情景分析法）的特点与适应范围。 |
| [23] | . Human life is ultimately dependent on ecosystem services supplied by the biosphere. These include food, disease regulation, and recreational opportunities. Over the past 50 years, humans have changed ecosystems more rapidly and extensively than at any other time in human history, primarily to meet our growing demands for provisioning ecosystem services (eg food, freshwater, and timber). These changes have impacted other ecosystem services (eg climate regulation and erosion control). Current demand for ecosystem services is growing rapidly. How these demands are met will play a major role in determining the ecological, economic, and cultural future of the planet. While much is known about improving management of production systems to be more sustainable, research gaps remain. Challenges for ecologists include understanding the connection between management regimes, ecosystem structures and provision of multiple types of ecosystem services, understanding interactions among ecosystem services, and exploring the role of thresholds and resilience in production systems. Understanding these systems and how to manage them to ensure resilient provision of multiple ecosystem services is a key challenge for ecology. /// La vida humana depende en última instancia de los servicios ecosistémicos que proporciona la biosfera. 07stos incluyen alimento, control de enfermedades y oportunidades recreativas. En los últimos 50 a09os los humanos han alterado los ecosistemas mas rápida y extensamente que durante cualquier otro periodo de la historia, principalmente para satisfacer la creciente demanda de servicios de aprovisionamiento (e.g., alimento, agua potable y madera). Estos cambios han alterado a otros servicios de los ecosistemas (e.g., regulación del clima y control de erosión). La demanda de servicios de los ecosistemas está creciendo rápidamente. La manera como esta demanda sea cubierta determinará el futuro ecológico, económico y cultural del planeta. Aunque se conocen maneras de mejorar los sistemas de producción para hacerlos sostenibles, aún existen muchos vacíos en la investigación. Los retos para los ecólogos incluyen el poder entender la conexión entre diferentes regímenes de manejo, las estructuras de los ecosistemas y la dotación de diversos tipos de servicios del ecosistema, la exploración de los umbrales y la resiliencia de los sistemas de producción. La comprensión de estos sistemas y su manejo para asegurar la resiliencia en la dotación de múltiples servicios ecosistémicos es un reto clave para la ecología. |
| [24] | . Rural landscapes are often multifunctional, meaning that at one single location different goods and services are being provided. Multifunctionality is spatially heterogeneous as not all areas are equally suitable to supply multiple goods and services. This suitability depends on favourable biophysical and socio-economic conditions and interactions among landscape functions. The objective of this paper is to identify and quantify interactions among landscape functions in a diverse and dynamic rural region, the Gelderse Vallei in the Netherlands. To be able to study these interactions first seven landscape functions (residential, intensive livestock, cultural heritage, tourism, plant habitat, arable production, and leisure cycling) are quantified and mapped using landscape indicators. These landscape function maps are subsequently aggregated to identify and quantify multifunctionality. The results of these analyses are used to study three aspects of landscape function interactions (a) influence of landscape characteristics on function interactions, (b) interrelations among landscape functions and (c) effect of multifunctionality on the different landscape functions. Landscape functions do not equally interact with one another, some landscape functions are affected negatively by the presence of other functions while other landscape functions benefit from multifunctionality. At multifunctionality hot spots different landscape functions are present that are enhancing one another. Additionally, in our study area it appears that mainly locations with landscape functions that sub-optimally provide goods and services are strongly multifunctional. Quantification and an improved understanding of landscape interactions will help to design and evaluate spatial policies related to the provision of multiple goods and services by the landscape. |
| [25] | . 由于生态系统服务的多样性、空间分布的不均衡性以及人类使用的选择性,在人为活动和自然因素作用下,服务之间的关系出现了此消彼长的权衡、相互增益的协同等变化。理解服务权衡与协同的表现类型、形成机理、尺度依存和区域差异,对于制定区域发展与生态保护"双赢"的政策措施具有重要意义。从相互作用与联系、类型与形成机制、研究方法与工具、尺度效应以及不确定性等方面评述了生态系统服务权衡与协同的国内外研究进展和局限性,并对研究趋势进行了展望。在此基础上,提出从地理学视角研究生态系统服务权衡与协同的主要议题,包括服务供需的时空异质性、权衡与协同的形成机制、尺度依存和区域差异等。可为拓展生态系统服务权衡与协同研究的深度和广度,提升地理学综合研究水平提供借鉴与参考。 . 由于生态系统服务的多样性、空间分布的不均衡性以及人类使用的选择性,在人为活动和自然因素作用下,服务之间的关系出现了此消彼长的权衡、相互增益的协同等变化。理解服务权衡与协同的表现类型、形成机理、尺度依存和区域差异,对于制定区域发展与生态保护"双赢"的政策措施具有重要意义。从相互作用与联系、类型与形成机制、研究方法与工具、尺度效应以及不确定性等方面评述了生态系统服务权衡与协同的国内外研究进展和局限性,并对研究趋势进行了展望。在此基础上,提出从地理学视角研究生态系统服务权衡与协同的主要议题,包括服务供需的时空异质性、权衡与协同的形成机制、尺度依存和区域差异等。可为拓展生态系统服务权衡与协同研究的深度和广度,提升地理学综合研究水平提供借鉴与参考。 |
| [26] | . Global efforts to conserve biodiversity have the potential to deliver economic benefits to people (i.e., "ecosystem services"). However, regions for which conservation benefits both biodiversity and ecosystem services cannot be identified unless ecosystem services can be quantified and valued and their areas of production mapped. Here we review the theory, data, and analyses needed to produce such maps and find that data availability allows us to quantify imperfect global proxies for only four ecosystem services. Using this incomplete set as an illustration, we compare ecosystem service maps with the global distributions of conventional targets for biodiversity conservation. Our preliminary results show that regions selected to maximize biodiversity provide no more ecosystem services than regions chosen randomly. Furthermore, spatial concordance among different services, and between ecosystem services and established conservation priorities, varies widely. Despite this lack of general concordance, "win-win" areas-regions important for both ecosystem services and biodiversity-can be usefully identified, both among ecoregions and at finer scales within them. An ambitious interdisciplinary research effort is needed to move beyond these preliminary and illustrative analyses to fully assess synergies and trade-offs in conserving biodiversity and ecosystem services. |
| [27] | . 地理学是"探索自然规律,昭示人文精华"的一门学科,具有综合性、交叉性特点。20世纪80年代以来,地理学在全球环境变化研究计划中扮演了重要角色,地理学的理论、方法和技术已经成为解决人类社会面临的可持续发展问题的基础。起源于全球环境变化研究,并结合了社会科学研究的"未来地球"研究计划,代表了新时期地理学发展的方向。当代地理学研究方法已经从勘察、观测、记录、制图等传统的研究方法向空间统计、对地观测、GIS、室内外模拟、建模、决策系统等现代科学方法转变,逐渐走向综合性、定量化;随着地理学面临的问题更加复杂、更加综合,地理学研究议题变得更为综合和多元,吸引了更为广泛的学科参与,地理学视角在越来越多的领域得到重视,概念和工具所属的学科边界正变得模糊。新时期的地理学正在走向地理科学。中国是研究人类社会的可持续发展问题的一个理想的地理科学试验场所,中国地理科学未来的发展需要以综合的角度加深对人地复杂系统全面而综合的理解,需要加强全球性问题的研究,全面提升中国地理科学国际化水平,普遍提高先进技术解析地理现象的能力,系统实现地理科学的社会服务价值,促进中国从地理学大国走向地理学强国。 . 地理学是"探索自然规律,昭示人文精华"的一门学科,具有综合性、交叉性特点。20世纪80年代以来,地理学在全球环境变化研究计划中扮演了重要角色,地理学的理论、方法和技术已经成为解决人类社会面临的可持续发展问题的基础。起源于全球环境变化研究,并结合了社会科学研究的"未来地球"研究计划,代表了新时期地理学发展的方向。当代地理学研究方法已经从勘察、观测、记录、制图等传统的研究方法向空间统计、对地观测、GIS、室内外模拟、建模、决策系统等现代科学方法转变,逐渐走向综合性、定量化;随着地理学面临的问题更加复杂、更加综合,地理学研究议题变得更为综合和多元,吸引了更为广泛的学科参与,地理学视角在越来越多的领域得到重视,概念和工具所属的学科边界正变得模糊。新时期的地理学正在走向地理科学。中国是研究人类社会的可持续发展问题的一个理想的地理科学试验场所,中国地理科学未来的发展需要以综合的角度加深对人地复杂系统全面而综合的理解,需要加强全球性问题的研究,全面提升中国地理科学国际化水平,普遍提高先进技术解析地理现象的能力,系统实现地理科学的社会服务价值,促进中国从地理学大国走向地理学强国。 |
| [28] | . A central challenge for natural resource management is developing rigorous yet practical approaches for balancing the costs and benefits of diverse human uses of ecosystems. Economic theory has a long history of evaluating tradeoffs in returns from different assets to identify optimal investment strategies. There has been recent progress applying this framework to the delivery of ecosystem services in land use planning. However, despite growing national and international interest in marine spatial planning, there is a lack of parallel frameworks in the marine realm. This paper reviews an ecosystem service tradeoff analysis framework and provides a more comprehensive synthesis for how it can be applied to marine spatial planning and marine ecosystem-based management. A tradeoff analysis approach can reveal inferior management options, demonstrate the benefits of comprehensive planning for multiple, interacting services over managing single services, and identify ‘compatible’ services that provide win–win management options. |
| [29] | . 生态系统服务之间存在的此消彼长的权衡或彼此增益的协同关系,是生态系统服务管理研究的重要内容。科学理解生态系统服务权衡/协同的作用特征、表现形式、驱动机制和尺度效应,对于提升人类福祉和实现人类社会和生态系统的"双赢"有重要意义,也是当前生态经济学、环境经济学、地理学等众多学科的研究热点和前沿。在综合分析国内外相关文献的基础上,总结了生态系统服务权衡/协同研究的理论基础,评述了生态系统服务权衡/协同表现形式、驱动机制和尺度效应的国内外研究进展和不足,并进一步探讨和展望了未来生态系统服务权衡/协同研究的重要内容,包括生态系统服务分类和评估优化,服务之间相互作用的量化模型、与自然—人文复合系统之间的反馈机制和尺度效应。 . 生态系统服务之间存在的此消彼长的权衡或彼此增益的协同关系,是生态系统服务管理研究的重要内容。科学理解生态系统服务权衡/协同的作用特征、表现形式、驱动机制和尺度效应,对于提升人类福祉和实现人类社会和生态系统的"双赢"有重要意义,也是当前生态经济学、环境经济学、地理学等众多学科的研究热点和前沿。在综合分析国内外相关文献的基础上,总结了生态系统服务权衡/协同研究的理论基础,评述了生态系统服务权衡/协同表现形式、驱动机制和尺度效应的国内外研究进展和不足,并进一步探讨和展望了未来生态系统服务权衡/协同研究的重要内容,包括生态系统服务分类和评估优化,服务之间相互作用的量化模型、与自然—人文复合系统之间的反馈机制和尺度效应。 |
| [30] | . The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) introduced a new framework for analyzing social-ecological systems that has had wide influence in the policy and scientific communities. Studies after the MA are taking up new challenges in the basic science needed to assess, project, and manage flows of ecosystem services and effects on human well-being. Yet, our ability to draw general conclusions remains limited by focus on discipline-bound sectors of the full social-ecological system. At the same time, some polices and practices intended to improve ecosystem services and human well-being are based on untested assumptions and sparse information. The people who are affected and those who provide resources are increasingly asking for evidence that interventions improve ecosystem services and human well-being. New research is needed that considers the full ensemble of processes and feedbacks, for a range of biophysical and social systems, to better understand and manage the dynamics of the relationship between humans and the ecosystems on which they rely. Such research will expand the capacity to address fundamental questions about complex social-ecological systems while evaluating assumptions of policies and practices intended to advance human well-being through improved ecosystem services. |
| [31] | . Understanding interactions of ecosystem service pairs and bundles is vital for making reasonable decisions in ecosystem management. Often, interaction analyses use linear correlation coefficients in order to identify trade-offs and synergies. Due to non-linear relations between ecosystem services in many cases, only weak interdependencies are revealed by this approach. For this reason we adopted nonparametric statistics, specifically bagplots (bivariate boxplots), for analyzing ecosystem service interactions. We demonstrate that bagplots complement correlation coefficients in assessing ecosystem services at NUTS 3 level across Europe and use them for mapping geographical patterns. In addition we suggest a new measure, which is the cumulative correlation coefficient R to rank the ecosystem services based on their synergies and trade-offs. We found that crop capacity is clearly the most conflicting ecosystem service, and carbon storage the one with the highest synergistic value. We conclude that bagplots allow insights into the relationships between ecosystems services beyond the highly aggregated correlation coefficients. In addition the new standardized measure cumulative R could support monitoring of trade-offs and synergies in time for a given study region or comparing study regions with respect to their frictions in ecosystem services supply. |
| [32] | . 生态系统及其服务的保护日益成为保护生态学研究的前沿和热点领域.本文对国际上生态系统保护和生态系统服 务评估的最新概念和方法进展进行综述,主要包括生态系统保护状况及濒危或保护优先等级确定的指标、标准,以及生态系统服务评估和保护的主要方法(包括参数 法、模型法和定量指标法),并结合中国生态保护研究的进展和需求,明确了急需解决的问题:1)提出适合中国国情的生态系统保护评估的指标、标准和方 法；2)发展生态系统服务评估的定量化方法；3)确定生态系统和生态功能保护需求及其空间优化布局；4)生态系统及其服务保护的政策和激励机制.这些问题 的解决将会为生态文明建设提供重要保障. . 生态系统及其服务的保护日益成为保护生态学研究的前沿和热点领域.本文对国际上生态系统保护和生态系统服 务评估的最新概念和方法进展进行综述,主要包括生态系统保护状况及濒危或保护优先等级确定的指标、标准,以及生态系统服务评估和保护的主要方法(包括参数 法、模型法和定量指标法),并结合中国生态保护研究的进展和需求,明确了急需解决的问题:1)提出适合中国国情的生态系统保护评估的指标、标准和方 法；2)发展生态系统服务评估的定量化方法；3)确定生态系统和生态功能保护需求及其空间优化布局；4)生态系统及其服务保护的政策和激励机制.这些问题 的解决将会为生态文明建设提供重要保障. |
| [33] | . 通过整理国内外已发表的生态系统文化服务(culture ecosystem services, CES)研究文献, 评述在研究尺度、评价指标、研究方法和管理与决策应用等方面的研究进展。在此基础上, 预测CES研究的发展趋势, 认为完善研究框架、推动参与式制图方法和加强服务间相互作用分析是未来研究的3个重要方面。 . 通过整理国内外已发表的生态系统文化服务(culture ecosystem services, CES)研究文献, 评述在研究尺度、评价指标、研究方法和管理与决策应用等方面的研究进展。在此基础上, 预测CES研究的发展趋势, 认为完善研究框架、推动参与式制图方法和加强服务间相互作用分析是未来研究的3个重要方面。 |
| [34] | . <p>维持和改善城市生态系统服务与人类福祉、促进可持续发展是当前城市生态学研究的重要议题之一.本文对城市生态系统服务的已有研究进行综述：基于城市生态系统服务的概念与内涵，总结了城市生态系统服务的主要特征，即人为主导性、高需求性、异质性、动态性、多功能性、社会经济属性以及负效应；当前城市生态系统服务的评价方法主要有指标法、价值评估法与模型模拟法；在城市生态系统不同类型服务中，调节服务与文化服务对提高城市居民健康尤为重要；城市生态系统服务的权衡主要表现在支持服务与文化服务之间、调节服务与文化服务之间.最后，总结了未来城市生态系统服务发展的主要方向，特别强调了城市生态系统服务研究在城市景观规划与设计中的重要作用.</p> . <p>维持和改善城市生态系统服务与人类福祉、促进可持续发展是当前城市生态学研究的重要议题之一.本文对城市生态系统服务的已有研究进行综述：基于城市生态系统服务的概念与内涵，总结了城市生态系统服务的主要特征，即人为主导性、高需求性、异质性、动态性、多功能性、社会经济属性以及负效应；当前城市生态系统服务的评价方法主要有指标法、价值评估法与模型模拟法；在城市生态系统不同类型服务中，调节服务与文化服务对提高城市居民健康尤为重要；城市生态系统服务的权衡主要表现在支持服务与文化服务之间、调节服务与文化服务之间.最后，总结了未来城市生态系统服务发展的主要方向，特别强调了城市生态系统服务研究在城市景观规划与设计中的重要作用.</p> |
| [35] | . 生态系统服务是生态学研究的前沿方向之一，生态系统服务制图是将生态系统服务的评估结果纳入到生态环境保护规划与管理决策制定与实施过程中的重要组成部分。生态系统服务制图是根据决策需求，选择合适的制图评价方法，对特定时空尺度上生态系统服务的空间分布以及在各种自然一社会因素共同影响下生态系统服务的情景变化进行量化描述的过程。它最终为决策参与者提供研究区域生态系统服务时空变化特征具体的、可视的量化描述，辅助决策者权衡利弊，最终制定出符合区域生态环境与人类社会共同可持续发展的最优决策。综述了生态系统服务制图的内涵及其在辅助决策过程中的重要作用；介绍了生态系统服务的重点研究内容（生态系统服务的提供、需求及权衡协同关系制图）及研究方法；并对目前研究中所存在的问题进行了深入的探讨，归纳了生态系统服务的制图评价流程及未来重点的研究方向。 . 生态系统服务是生态学研究的前沿方向之一，生态系统服务制图是将生态系统服务的评估结果纳入到生态环境保护规划与管理决策制定与实施过程中的重要组成部分。生态系统服务制图是根据决策需求，选择合适的制图评价方法，对特定时空尺度上生态系统服务的空间分布以及在各种自然一社会因素共同影响下生态系统服务的情景变化进行量化描述的过程。它最终为决策参与者提供研究区域生态系统服务时空变化特征具体的、可视的量化描述，辅助决策者权衡利弊，最终制定出符合区域生态环境与人类社会共同可持续发展的最优决策。综述了生态系统服务制图的内涵及其在辅助决策过程中的重要作用；介绍了生态系统服务的重点研究内容（生态系统服务的提供、需求及权衡协同关系制图）及研究方法；并对目前研究中所存在的问题进行了深入的探讨，归纳了生态系统服务的制图评价流程及未来重点的研究方向。 |
| [36] | . |
| [37] | . Ecosystem services (ES) is a valuable concept to be used in the planning and management of social cological landscapes. However, the understanding of the determinant factors affecting the interaction between services in the form of synergies or trade-offs is still limited. We assessed the production of 16 ES across 62 municipalities in the Norrstr m drainage basin in Sweden. We combined GIS data with publically available information for quantifying and mapping the distribution of services. Additionally, we calculated the diversity of ES for each municipality and used correlations and k-means clustering analyses to assess the existence of ES bundles. We found five distinct types of bundles of ES spatially agglomerated in the landscape that could be explained by regional social and ecological gradients. Human-dominated landscapes were highly multifunctional in our study area and urban densely populated areas were hotspots of cultural services. |
| [38] | . Biodiversity and ecosystem services are intrinsically linked. Since human activities have both intensive and extensive impacts on the environment, it is critical to understand spatial relationships between conservation priorities for biodiversity and ecosystem services. The manner in which various aspects of biodiversity relate to ecosystem services and the spatial congruence between biodiversity and these services, is, however, unclear. In the present study in the Baiyangdian watershed, China, we investigated spatial characteristics of biodiversity and ecosystem services using correlation, overlap, and principal component, analyses. The spatial correlations between biodiversity and ecosystem services were found to be high. Biodiversity was positively correlated with soil retention, water yield and carbon sequestration and negatively correlated with N/P retention and pollination. Pairwise overlap was found to be the highest between N and P retention, biodiversity and carbon sequestration, and biodiversity and water yield. Other couples indicated moderate or small overlap. Principal component analysis indicated that biodiversity and six ecosystem services could be divided into two groups, which could be managed and conserved separately. It can be concluded that biodiversity priorities co-occur with water yield, soil retention and carbon sequestration, and do not co-occur with N/P retention and pollination. Conservation of a biodiversity hotspot was associated with maintaining 45.02% of a carbon sequestration hotspot, 42.05% of a water yield hotspot, and 23.29% of a soil retention hotspot, indicating that conserving biodiversity will also result in the protection of these services. The bundling of biodiversity and ecosystem services is thus both possible and practical. Our findings provide valuable information on congruence and divergence among conservation hotspots and the protection of ecosystem services. They also indicate that a systematic and comprehensive approach that can have wide-ranging policy implications in terms of optimizing conservation strategies for multiple ecosystem services. |
| [39] | . Abstract The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA 2003) framework was applied to provide a holistic assessment and comparison of ecosystem services delivery from 11 environmental change network (ECN) sites, following a workshop of ECN site managers. A list of common variables was agreed to represent the high level categories defined by the MA. The resultant 73 variables, either direct ecosystem services or proxies, were divided into two subsets (readily accessible biogeographical data from all sites and additional site specific data). Similarity analysis of the biogeographical data indicated four site clusters: land with at least 50% forest cover, productive livestock farmland, uplands and a lowland grass/arable group. The first three clusters were also evident for both the additional data and for the larger combined dataset. The lowland grass/arable sites were a ixed use cluster that was not apparent in the analysis of the additional or combined datasets indicating a mismatch between particular ecosystem services and specific landscapes/habitats. Procrustes analysis of the biogeographical data and the combined dataset suggested that the primary differences between datasets were due to variables associated with local management decisions which prevented harvesting of provisioning services or denied public access to the site. Drawing on comparable data from some of the most intensively researched and monitored ecosystems in the UK, this study demonstrates the challenges and limitations involved in attempting holistic assessments of ecosystem services at the site and inter-site level and highlights the importance of both local expert knowledge and consistent scientific measurement in contributing to the process. Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. |
| [40] | . Understanding spatial distributions, synergies, and tradeoffs of multiple ecosystem services (benefits people derive from ecosystems) remains challenging. We analyzed the supply of 10 ecosystem services for 2006 across a large urbanizing agricultural watershed in the Upper Midwest of the United States, and asked the following: (i) Where are areas of high and low supply of individual ecosystem services, and are these areas spatially concordant across services? (ii) Where on the landscape are the strongest tradeoffs and synergies among ecosystem services located? (iii) For ecosystem service pairs that experience tradeoffs, what distinguishes locations that are "win-win" exceptions from other locations? Spatial patterns of high supply for multiple ecosystem services often were not coincident; locations where six or more services were produced at high levels (upper 20th percentile) occupied only 3.3% of the landscape. Most relationships among ecosystem services were synergies, but tradeoffs occurred between crop production and water quality. Ecosystem services related to water quality and quantity separated into three different groups, indicating that management to sustain freshwater services along with other ecosystem services will not be simple. Despite overall tradeoffs between crop production and water quality, some locations were positive for both, suggesting that tradeoffs are not inevitable everywhere and might be ameliorated in some locations. Overall, we found that different areas of the landscape supplied different suites of ecosystem services, and their lack of spatial concordance suggests the importance of managing over large areas to sustain multiple ecosystem services. |
| [41] | . As natural resource management and conservation goals expand and evolve, practitioners and policy makers are increasingly seeking options that optimize benefits among multiple, often contradictory objectives. Here, we describe a simple approach for quantifying the consequences of alternative management options in terms of benefits and trade-offs among multiple objectives. We examine two long-term forest management experiments that span several decades of stand (forest tree community) development and identify substantial trade-offs among carbon cycling and ecological complexity objectives. In addition to providing improved understanding of the long-term consequences of various management options, the results of these experiments show that positive benefits resulting from some management options are often associated with large trade-offs among individual objectives. The approach to understanding benefits and trade-offs presented here provides a simple yet flexible framework for quantitatively assessing the consequences of different management options. |
| [42] | . 关中—天水经济区是西部大开发规划中提出的需要重点发展的第三个经济区,经济迅速发展的同时带给生态环境巨大压力,因此研究关中—天水经济区的生态系统服务变化以及生态系统服务之间的关系,对经济区的可持续发展具有重要意义。本文测算了2000年至2010年关中—天水经济区的净初级生产力(NPP)、保水量以及土壤侵蚀量——反映狭义上的保土服务功能(减少土壤侵蚀),引入玫瑰图以及生产可能性边界方法研究这三种生态系统服务之间的权衡和协同关系,并对2030年关中—天水经济区的土地利用类型进行情景模拟,在不同情景下研究净初级生产力(NPP)保水以及土壤侵蚀三者的空间分布和相互之间权衡和协同关系。结果表明:NPP与保水之间存在协同关系,NPP的增加会促进保水量的提高,反过来,保水量的增加有利于NPP的积累;NPP与土壤侵蚀以及保水与土壤侵蚀之间为权衡关系,NPP、保水的增长有利于减少土壤侵蚀,增加土壤保持量;保护情景下获得的NPP与保水量最多,土壤侵蚀量最少,是最优的土地利用类型方案,最有利于生态环境;不同情景下NPP与土壤侵蚀以及保水与土壤侵蚀之间也存在权衡关系。 . 关中—天水经济区是西部大开发规划中提出的需要重点发展的第三个经济区,经济迅速发展的同时带给生态环境巨大压力,因此研究关中—天水经济区的生态系统服务变化以及生态系统服务之间的关系,对经济区的可持续发展具有重要意义。本文测算了2000年至2010年关中—天水经济区的净初级生产力(NPP)、保水量以及土壤侵蚀量——反映狭义上的保土服务功能(减少土壤侵蚀),引入玫瑰图以及生产可能性边界方法研究这三种生态系统服务之间的权衡和协同关系,并对2030年关中—天水经济区的土地利用类型进行情景模拟,在不同情景下研究净初级生产力(NPP)保水以及土壤侵蚀三者的空间分布和相互之间权衡和协同关系。结果表明:NPP与保水之间存在协同关系,NPP的增加会促进保水量的提高,反过来,保水量的增加有利于NPP的积累;NPP与土壤侵蚀以及保水与土壤侵蚀之间为权衡关系,NPP、保水的增长有利于减少土壤侵蚀,增加土壤保持量;保护情景下获得的NPP与保水量最多,土壤侵蚀量最少,是最优的土地利用类型方案,最有利于生态环境;不同情景下NPP与土壤侵蚀以及保水与土壤侵蚀之间也存在权衡关系。 |
| [43] | . Due to the lengthy historic land use by humans and the climate change characterized by warming and drying, the Loess Plateau has been plagued by ecosystem degradation for a long time. A series of ecological conservation projects launched since the 1970s altered the land use pattern greatly, and exerted a profound influence on the ecosystem services. Based on the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs (InVEST) and Carnegie–Ames–Stanford Approach (CASA) models, we assessed the historical fluctuation of sediment control, water yield, and net primary production (NPP) in the Loess Plateau. The results showed that sediment retention was greatly consolidated indicated by the sharp decrease of sediment export. Water yield decreased at first and increased later. Both sediment export and water yield showed an increasing ‘spatial homogenization’ tendency during the period. NPP was steady between 1990 and 2000, and then increased greatly after 2000. Ecosystem services are interlinked closely and complexly. Correlation analyses indicated a positive relationship between the difference in sediment export and water yield ( r 2 02=020.776 6868 ) from 1975 to 2008, with negative correlations between the difference of NPP and water yield ( r 2 02=0261020.422 6868 )/sediment export ( r 2 02=0261020.240 68 ) from 1990 to 2008. This, to some extent, implies that there are tradeoffs between the services of water yield and sediment control/NPP, and there is synergy between sediment control and NPP. Climatic and land use changes are the major drivers on ecosystem services fluctuation. Correlation analyses showed that the decrease of precipitation significantly hindered water yield ( r 2 02=020.980 6868 ) and sediment export ( r 2 02=020.791 6868 ). The increase of temperature exerted a slight negative influence on water yield ( r 2 02=0261020.350 6868 ). A spatial concordance existing between the ‘cropland to grass/woodland’ area and the high sediment control ( r 2 02=020.313 6868 )/NPP ( r 2 02=020.488 6868 ) area indicated that the land use change from cropland to woodland/grassland significantly consolidated sediment control and NPP production. The observed spatio-temporal variation of ecosystem services and their correlations provide an operable criterion for land use management policies. |
| [44] | . Carbon sequestration by afforestation can help mitigate global climate change but may have adverse environmental and economic impacts in some regions. For example, economic incentives for carbon sequestration may encourage the expansion of Pinus radiata timber plantations in the Fynbos biome of South Africa, with negative consequences for water supply and biodiversity. I built a dynamic ecological conomic model to investigate whether afforestation of a Fynbos catchment with Pinus radiata is economically viable when the potential benefits of carbon sequestration and timber production are balanced against the losses to water supply. I found that afforestation appears viable to the forestry industry under current water tariffs and current carbon accounting legislation, but would appear unviable if the forestry industry were to pay the true cost of water used by the plantations. I also found that under various plausible future economic scenarios, afforestation can be associated with either large future economic gains or losses, suggesting a need for future analyses based on branches of decision theory that deal with severe uncertainty. I conclude with a general recommendation that climate legislation should be explicit about the conditions under which afforestation for carbon sequestration of native vegetation is a legitimate climate mitigation strategy. |
| [45] | . Since the late 1960s, the valuation of ecosystem services has received ample attention in scientific literature. However, to date, there has been relatively little elaboration of the various spatial and temporal scales at which ecosystem services are supplied. This paper analyzes the spatial scales of ecosystem services, and it examines how stakeholders at different spatial scales attach different values to ecosystem services. The paper first establishes an enhanced framework for the valuation of ecosystem services, with specific attention for stakeholders. The framework includes a procedure to assess the value of regulation services that avoids double counting of these services. Subsequently, the paper analyses the spatial scales of ecosystem services: the ecological scales at which ecosystem services are generated, and the institutional scales at which stakeholders benefit from ecosystem services. On the basis of the proposed valuation framework, we value four selected ecosystem services supplied by the De Wieden wetlands in The Netherlands, and we analyze how these services accrue to stakeholders at different institutional scales. These services are the provision of reed for cutting, the provision of fish, recreation, and nature conservation. In the De Wieden wetland, reed cutting and fisheries are only important at the municipal scale, recreation is most relevant at the municipal and provincial scale, and nature conservation is important in particular at the national and international level. Our analysis shows that stakeholders at different spatial scales can have very different interests in ecosystem services, and we argue that it is highly important to consider the scales of ecosystem services when valuation of services is applied to support the formulation or implementation of ecosystem management plans. |
| [46] | . 生态系统服务价值评估能为确立生态环境保护激励机制和完善流域生态补偿机制提供重要的理论依据与数据支撑。本文基于南水北调中线工程水源区2002-2010年的土地利用变化分析,全面评估了水源区生态系统服务价值及其动态变化情况,据此确立了生态补偿的上限标准和分摊机制,并尝试根据生态服务功能和动态价值变化确立生态补偿支付标准。结果表明:南水北调中线工程水源区2010年生态系统服务总价值为2 724.56亿元,比2002年减少了125.38亿元;南水北调中线工程受水区生态补偿上限标准为46.12亿元/a,其中中央政府为18.45亿元/a,受水区地方政府为27.67亿元/a;生态补偿支付标准中央政府为7.1亿元/a,河南、河北、天津和北京分别为4.26亿元/a、3.93亿元/a、1.12亿元/a和1.34亿元/a。本文最后建议改革现有南水北调工程水价机制,继续加大生态补偿中央纵向转移支付,逐步建立生态补偿横向转移支付机制。 . 生态系统服务价值评估能为确立生态环境保护激励机制和完善流域生态补偿机制提供重要的理论依据与数据支撑。本文基于南水北调中线工程水源区2002-2010年的土地利用变化分析,全面评估了水源区生态系统服务价值及其动态变化情况,据此确立了生态补偿的上限标准和分摊机制,并尝试根据生态服务功能和动态价值变化确立生态补偿支付标准。结果表明:南水北调中线工程水源区2010年生态系统服务总价值为2 724.56亿元,比2002年减少了125.38亿元;南水北调中线工程受水区生态补偿上限标准为46.12亿元/a,其中中央政府为18.45亿元/a,受水区地方政府为27.67亿元/a;生态补偿支付标准中央政府为7.1亿元/a,河南、河北、天津和北京分别为4.26亿元/a、3.93亿元/a、1.12亿元/a和1.34亿元/a。本文最后建议改革现有南水北调工程水价机制,继续加大生态补偿中央纵向转移支付,逐步建立生态补偿横向转移支付机制。 |
| [47] | . Ecosystem services can provide a wide range of benefits for human well-being, including provisioning, regulating and cultural services and benefitting both private and public interests in different sectors of society. Biophysical, economic and social factors all make it unlikely that multiple needs will be met simultaneously without deliberate efforts, yet while there is still much interest in developing win-win outcomes there is little understanding of what is required for them to be achieved. We analysed outcomes in a wide range of case studies where ecosystem services had been used for human well-being. Using systematic mapping of the literature from 2000 to 2013, we identified 1324 potentially relevant reports, 92 of which were selected for the review, creating a database of 231 actual or potential recorded trade-offs and synergies. The analysis of these case studies highlighted significant gaps in the literature, including: a limited geographic distribution of case studies, a focus on provisioning as opposed to non-provisioning services and a lack of studies exploring the link between ecosystem service trade-offs or synergies and the ultimate impact on human well-being. Trade-offs are recorded almost three times as often as synergies and the analysis indicates that there are three significant indicators that a trade-off will occur: at least one of the stakeholders having a private interest in the natural resources available, the involvement of provisioning ecosystem services and at least one of the stakeholders acting at the local scale. There is not, however, a generalisable context for a win-win, indicating that these trade-off indicators, although highlighting where a trade-off may occur do not indicate that it is inevitable. Taking account of why trade-offs occur (e.g. from failures in management or a lack of accounting for all stakeholders) is more likely to create win-win situations than planning for a win-win from the outset. Consequently, taking a trade-offs as opposed to a win-win approach, by having an awareness of and accounting for factors that predict a trade-off (private interest, provisioning versus other ES, local stakeholder) and the reasons why trade-offs are often the outcome, it may be possible to create the synergies we seek to achieve. |
| [48] | . The concept of cosystem service provides cohesive views on mechanisms by which nature contributes to human well-being. Fast social and economic development calls for research on interactions between human and natural systems. We took the Yanhe Watershed as our study area, and valued the variation of ecosystem services and human activities of 2000 and 2008. Five ecosystem services were selected i.e. net primary production (NPP), carbon sequestration and oxygen production (CSOP), water conservation, soil conservation, and grain production. Human activity was represented by a composite human activity index (HAI) that integrates human population density, farmland ratio, influence of residential sites and road network. Analysis results of the five ecosystem services and human activity (HAI) are as follows: (i)NPP, CSOP, water conservation, and soil conservation increased from 2000 to 2008, while grain production declined. HAI decreased from 2000 to 2008. Spatially, NPP, CSOP, and water conservation in 2000 and 2008 roughly demonstrated a pattern of decline from south to north, while grain production shows an endocentric increasing spatial pattern. Soil conservation showed a spatial pattern of high in the south and low in the north in 2000 and a different pattern of high in the west and low in the east in 2008 respectively. HAI is proportional to the administrative level and economic development. Variation of NPP/CSOP between 2000 and 2008 show an increasing spatial pattern from northwest to southeast. In contrast, the variation of soil conservation shows an increasing pattern from southeast to northwest. Variation of water conservation shows a fanning out decreasing pattern. Variation of grain production doesn show conspicuous spatial pattern. (ii) Variation of water conservation and of soil conservation is significantly positively correlated at 0.01 level. Both variations of water conservation and soil conservation are negatively correlated with variation of HAI at 0.01 level. Variations of NPP/CSOP are negatively correlated with variations of soil conservation and grain production at 0.05 level. (iii) Strong tradeoffs exist between regulation services and provision service, while synergies exist within regulation services. Driving effect of human activities on ecosystem services and tradeoffs and synergies among ecosystem service are also discussed. |
| [49] | . 陆地表层植被作为生态系统主体,具有调节气候、水文调节、净化水质、保持水土等生态系统服务。理解生态系统服务权衡与协同的表现类型、形成机理、尺度依存和区域差异,对于制定区域发展与生态保护＂双赢＂的政策措施具有重要意义。以关天经济区为主要研究对象,利用相关模型,计算关天经济区生态系统NPP,固碳释氧,水文调节,水土保持,粮食生产等生态系统服务价值,利用ESCI和ESSI两个指数研究其生态系统服务价值时空变化,利用相关系数和空间制图的方法研究它们之间的相互权衡协同关系。结果表明：从时间角度分析,各项生态服务价值都呈现逐渐增加的趋势;从空间角度分析,2000年和2010年存在相似的空间分布格局,从北向南,NPP和固碳释氧的价值逐渐增大,水土保持价值变化量的大小也呈现不断增加的趋势,北部变化量小,南部变化量大,水文调节价值从西向东增大,从北向南增大,粮食生产价值量最小的是西安市市区,粮食生产价值量最大的是西安市的郊区和郊县及咸阳市。2000年到2010年间,调节型生态系统服务与供给型生态系统服务之间存在着此消彼长的权衡关系;各个区县的总生态服务价值指数从北向南、从西向东是不断增大的。 . 陆地表层植被作为生态系统主体,具有调节气候、水文调节、净化水质、保持水土等生态系统服务。理解生态系统服务权衡与协同的表现类型、形成机理、尺度依存和区域差异,对于制定区域发展与生态保护＂双赢＂的政策措施具有重要意义。以关天经济区为主要研究对象,利用相关模型,计算关天经济区生态系统NPP,固碳释氧,水文调节,水土保持,粮食生产等生态系统服务价值,利用ESCI和ESSI两个指数研究其生态系统服务价值时空变化,利用相关系数和空间制图的方法研究它们之间的相互权衡协同关系。结果表明：从时间角度分析,各项生态服务价值都呈现逐渐增加的趋势;从空间角度分析,2000年和2010年存在相似的空间分布格局,从北向南,NPP和固碳释氧的价值逐渐增大,水土保持价值变化量的大小也呈现不断增加的趋势,北部变化量小,南部变化量大,水文调节价值从西向东增大,从北向南增大,粮食生产价值量最小的是西安市市区,粮食生产价值量最大的是西安市的郊区和郊县及咸阳市。2000年到2010年间,调节型生态系统服务与供给型生态系统服务之间存在着此消彼长的权衡关系;各个区县的总生态服务价值指数从北向南、从西向东是不断增大的。 |
| [50] | . 理解生态系统服务间的权衡关系对提高干燥地区人类福祉和实现区域可持续性具有重要的意义.但是,目前人们仍然缺乏对快速城市化干燥地区中生态系统服务权衡关系的多尺度理解.以呼包鄂榆地区这一正在经历快速城市化的干燥地区为例,在城市群、区域和城市3个尺度上来探索生态系统服务间的权衡关系.对呼包鄂榆地区2010年的粮食生产、肉类生产、产水量、土壤保持和碳固持5种关键生态系统服务进行测量.利用相关分析法在3个尺度上对5种服务间的权衡关系进行分析.2010年呼包鄂榆地区产水量和土壤保持以及产水量和碳固持服务表现出显著的权衡关系.其中,产水量和碳固持服务在城市群、农业区和鄂尔多斯市呈现明显的权衡关系,产水量和土壤保持服务在城市群和农业区呈现明显的权衡关系.快速城市化干燥地区中的生态系统服务权衡关系具有明显的尺度效应,同一对生态系统服务在不同尺度上的权衡关系存在较大差异.这种差异主要是由区域人类活动和自然条件的空间异质性所致.研究结果有助于对呼包鄂榆地区生态系统服务权衡关系的认识,为该地区土地系统设计和可持续发展提供了必要的科学依据. . 理解生态系统服务间的权衡关系对提高干燥地区人类福祉和实现区域可持续性具有重要的意义.但是,目前人们仍然缺乏对快速城市化干燥地区中生态系统服务权衡关系的多尺度理解.以呼包鄂榆地区这一正在经历快速城市化的干燥地区为例,在城市群、区域和城市3个尺度上来探索生态系统服务间的权衡关系.对呼包鄂榆地区2010年的粮食生产、肉类生产、产水量、土壤保持和碳固持5种关键生态系统服务进行测量.利用相关分析法在3个尺度上对5种服务间的权衡关系进行分析.2010年呼包鄂榆地区产水量和土壤保持以及产水量和碳固持服务表现出显著的权衡关系.其中,产水量和碳固持服务在城市群、农业区和鄂尔多斯市呈现明显的权衡关系,产水量和土壤保持服务在城市群和农业区呈现明显的权衡关系.快速城市化干燥地区中的生态系统服务权衡关系具有明显的尺度效应,同一对生态系统服务在不同尺度上的权衡关系存在较大差异.这种差异主要是由区域人类活动和自然条件的空间异质性所致.研究结果有助于对呼包鄂榆地区生态系统服务权衡关系的认识,为该地区土地系统设计和可持续发展提供了必要的科学依据. |
| [51] | . Ecosystem service (ES) relationship occurs due to two types of mechanisms: (1) interact directly or (2) interact through the impact of a shared factor. Identifying such mechanisms behind ES relationship within a single land-use/land-cover category and combining it with a system thinking framework is especially necessary for effective decision-making to manage multiple ESs generated by this land-use/land-cover. In this study, we use tea plantations in China to investigate mechanisms behind ES relationships. We find that tea production is positively correlated with four regulating services (i.e., carbon sequestration, soil N protection, soil P protection, and water conservation). Several regulating services, such as carbon sequestration and soil N, P, and K protection, have positive correlations with each other. Tea production, carbon sequestration, and soil retention are significantly correlated with local annual mean temperature and precipitation. We then establish driver-pressure-state-impact-response (DPSIR) framework for tea plantations, which has been widely used for environmental management issues. Integrating our findings of ES relationship into DPSIR framework, we can estimate how ES change is responding to two types of responses: response to control drivers and response to maintain or restore state. Scenario analysis showed that the responses to control drivers have a larger impact on ES. We discuss that DPSIR would favor managing multiple ES because it enables a more precise understanding of how ES interacts through the effects of factors from various hierarchies. Finally, we suggest integrating ES direct interaction into DPSIR framework. We think such integration could improve the ability of DPSIR framework to support decision-making in multiple ES management, specifically in at least three aspects: (1) favor to identify all possible response alternatives, (2) enable us to evaluate ES which cannot be assessed if without such combining, and (3) help to identify ecological leverage points where small management investment can yield substantial benefits. |
| [52] | . 基于统计数据及MODIS产品,计算西藏草地2000与2010年载畜支持服务、肉类供给服务、水源涵养服务和碳吸收服务的功能量.构建Pearson相关系数、总生态系统服务(TES)、供给-调节服务互竞指数(TO),分析了4项生态系统服务相互作用关系随纬度、海拔及时间变化的规律.结果表明：西藏草地两项供给服务和两项调节服务之间分别为相互协同作用,且随时空变化不大.供给服务和调节服务之间的相互作用随海拔和纬度升高时,基本由相互竞争转变为相互协同,在高纬度时则无相互作用.4项服务在低纬度及低海拔呈相互竞争关系时,其生态系统服务总体水平也较低,中纬度及中高海拔呈协同关系时,其总体水平较高.从2000年到2010年,西藏草地4项生态系统服务皆发生较大变化.在变化中,12％的草地供给服务与调节服务发生相互竞争作用,33％的草地则为相互协同关系.发生相互竞争作用的草地主要集中在中低纬度的一江两河地区,而相互协同的区域主要为藏北羌塘高原中南部. . 基于统计数据及MODIS产品,计算西藏草地2000与2010年载畜支持服务、肉类供给服务、水源涵养服务和碳吸收服务的功能量.构建Pearson相关系数、总生态系统服务(TES)、供给-调节服务互竞指数(TO),分析了4项生态系统服务相互作用关系随纬度、海拔及时间变化的规律.结果表明：西藏草地两项供给服务和两项调节服务之间分别为相互协同作用,且随时空变化不大.供给服务和调节服务之间的相互作用随海拔和纬度升高时,基本由相互竞争转变为相互协同,在高纬度时则无相互作用.4项服务在低纬度及低海拔呈相互竞争关系时,其生态系统服务总体水平也较低,中纬度及中高海拔呈协同关系时,其总体水平较高.从2000年到2010年,西藏草地4项生态系统服务皆发生较大变化.在变化中,12％的草地供给服务与调节服务发生相互竞争作用,33％的草地则为相互协同关系.发生相互竞争作用的草地主要集中在中低纬度的一江两河地区,而相互协同的区域主要为藏北羌塘高原中南部. |
| [53] | . ABSTRACT Meeting fundamental human needs while preserving Earth's life support systems will require an accelerated transition toward sustainability. A new field of sustainability science is emerging that seeks to understand the fundamental character of interactions between nature and society and to encourage those interactions along more sustainable trajectories. Such an integrated, place-based science will require new research strategies and institutional innovations to enable them especially in developing countries still separated by deepening divides from mainstream science. Sustainability science needs to be widely discussed in the scientific community, reconnected to the political agenda for sustainable development, and become a major focus for research. |
| [54] | <p>可持续发展是我们时代的主题，也是人类面临的最大挑战.自20世纪70年代，尤其是近20年来，可持续发展的概念日益频繁地出现在学术文章、政府文件以及公益宣传和商业广告之中.然而，为可持续发展提供理论基础和实践指导的科学——可持续性科学——是在21世纪初才开始形成的.该科学在短短的十几年中迅速开拓、不断发展，正在形成其科学概念框架和研究体系.中国是世界大国，是可持续性科学的哲学思想——“天人合一”——的故乡，有必要承担起时代之重任，在追求“中国梦”的同时促进全球可持续发展，并积极参与进而引领可持续性科学的研究和实践.为了帮助实现这一宏伟而远大目标，本文拟对可持续性科学的基本概念、研究论题和发展前景作一概述.可持续性科学是研究人与环境之间动态关系——特别是耦合系统的脆弱性、抗扰性、弹性和稳定性——的整合型科学.它穿越自然科学和人文与社会科学，以环境、经济和社会的相互关系为核心，将基础性研究和应用研究融为一体.可持续发展的核心内容往往因时、因地、 因人而异.因此，可持续性科学必须注重多尺度研究，同时应特别关注 50到100年的时间尺度和景观以及区域的空间尺度. 景观和区域不但是最可操作的空间尺度，同时也是上通全球、下达局地的枢纽尺度.可持续性科学需要聚焦于生态系统服务和人类福祉的相互关系，进而探讨生物多样性和生态系统过程，以及气候变化、土地利用变化和其他社会经济驱动过程对这一关系的影响.我们认为，景观和可持续性是可持续性科学的核心研究内容，也将是可持续性科学在以后几十年的研究热点.</p> <p>可持续发展是我们时代的主题，也是人类面临的最大挑战.自20世纪70年代，尤其是近20年来，可持续发展的概念日益频繁地出现在学术文章、政府文件以及公益宣传和商业广告之中.然而，为可持续发展提供理论基础和实践指导的科学——可持续性科学——是在21世纪初才开始形成的.该科学在短短的十几年中迅速开拓、不断发展，正在形成其科学概念框架和研究体系.中国是世界大国，是可持续性科学的哲学思想——“天人合一”——的故乡，有必要承担起时代之重任，在追求“中国梦”的同时促进全球可持续发展，并积极参与进而引领可持续性科学的研究和实践.为了帮助实现这一宏伟而远大目标，本文拟对可持续性科学的基本概念、研究论题和发展前景作一概述.可持续性科学是研究人与环境之间动态关系——特别是耦合系统的脆弱性、抗扰性、弹性和稳定性——的整合型科学.它穿越自然科学和人文与社会科学，以环境、经济和社会的相互关系为核心，将基础性研究和应用研究融为一体.可持续发展的核心内容往往因时、因地、 因人而异.因此，可持续性科学必须注重多尺度研究，同时应特别关注 50到100年的时间尺度和景观以及区域的空间尺度. 景观和区域不但是最可操作的空间尺度，同时也是上通全球、下达局地的枢纽尺度.可持续性科学需要聚焦于生态系统服务和人类福祉的相互关系，进而探讨生物多样性和生态系统过程，以及气候变化、土地利用变化和其他社会经济驱动过程对这一关系的影响.我们认为，景观和可持续性是可持续性科学的核心研究内容，也将是可持续性科学在以后几十年的研究热点.</p> |
| [55] | . . |
| [56] | . 全球气候变化和土地利用/覆盖变化已经导致许多地区水资源短缺、生态系统服务退化和巨灾风险增加等一系列生态环境问题。如何有效地应对气候变化风险,促进全球和区域的可持续发展,是当前全球变化研究中的一个重要论题。国家重点基础研究发展计划项目"全球变化与区域可持续发展耦合模型及调控对策(2014CB954300)"以可持续性科学为主要依据,以有序人类活动理念为指导思想,以实地观测、模型模拟和情景分析为主要手段,揭示气候变化和人类活动的定量关系,评估气候变化条件下人类活动对区域生态系统服务和人类福祉的影响,建立气候变化—有序人类活动—区域可持续发展耦合模型,提出景观及区域尺度上人类适应全球变化的综合策略。该研究项目将有助于发展和完善景观可持续性科学,促进我国半干旱地区主动适应全球气候变化的土地系统设计的理论和实践。 . 全球气候变化和土地利用/覆盖变化已经导致许多地区水资源短缺、生态系统服务退化和巨灾风险增加等一系列生态环境问题。如何有效地应对气候变化风险,促进全球和区域的可持续发展,是当前全球变化研究中的一个重要论题。国家重点基础研究发展计划项目"全球变化与区域可持续发展耦合模型及调控对策(2014CB954300)"以可持续性科学为主要依据,以有序人类活动理念为指导思想,以实地观测、模型模拟和情景分析为主要手段,揭示气候变化和人类活动的定量关系,评估气候变化条件下人类活动对区域生态系统服务和人类福祉的影响,建立气候变化—有序人类活动—区域可持续发展耦合模型,提出景观及区域尺度上人类适应全球变化的综合策略。该研究项目将有助于发展和完善景观可持续性科学,促进我国半干旱地区主动适应全球气候变化的土地系统设计的理论和实践。 |
| [57] | . The concepts of well-being and quality of life concern evaluative judgements. There is insufficient understanding in current literature that these judgements are made variously due to the use of not only differing values and differing research instruments but also differing standpoints, differing purposes, and differing theoretical views and ontological presuppositions. The paper elucidates these sources of differences and how they underlie the wide diversity of current conceptions. |
| [58] | . 生态系统服务研究越来越强调服务与人类福利的关系.生态系统服务空间流动研究试图在生态系统服务供给与使用之间构建因果联系,探索服务供给时空动态与人类福利变化的关系.综述了20世纪90年代以来国内外生态系统服务研究的进展,梳理了生态系统服务空间流动研究发展的脉络及其出现的必要性,提出了未来生态系统服务空间流动发展的重要方向是分布式空间模拟,但这受到数据可获得性和专业知识的限制.未来可以通过利用已有地理资源数据库和派生数据库增加数据来源,组建由不同学科人员组成的研究团队来弥补专业知识不足造成的影响.通过生态系统服务空间流动研究,可以在生态系统服务供给和需求之间建立反馈关系,为制定科学合理的管理政策提供科学依据. . 生态系统服务研究越来越强调服务与人类福利的关系.生态系统服务空间流动研究试图在生态系统服务供给与使用之间构建因果联系,探索服务供给时空动态与人类福利变化的关系.综述了20世纪90年代以来国内外生态系统服务研究的进展,梳理了生态系统服务空间流动研究发展的脉络及其出现的必要性,提出了未来生态系统服务空间流动发展的重要方向是分布式空间模拟,但这受到数据可获得性和专业知识的限制.未来可以通过利用已有地理资源数据库和派生数据库增加数据来源,组建由不同学科人员组成的研究团队来弥补专业知识不足造成的影响.通过生态系统服务空间流动研究,可以在生态系统服务供给和需求之间建立反馈关系,为制定科学合理的管理政策提供科学依据. |
| [59] | . 千年生态系统评估提出将"生态系统服务与人类福祉"作为未来生态学研究的核心内容,相关研究日益增多。然而,当前学界对生态系统服务的定义和分类仍存在争论,概念的混乱导致研究中对服务理解的分歧。本文在综述国内外主要生态系统服务定义和分类方案的基础上,利用从生态系统服务到人类福祉的服务级联框架,辨析生态系统服务形成过程中不同级联的联系和区别,探讨人类福祉的内涵及其与生态系统服务的联系,提出使用终端生态系统服务来连接生态系统与人类福祉,以此建立连接服务与多层次人类福祉的服务分类框架。根据终端生态系统服务所产生收益与不同层次人类福祉的关联,将生态系统服务划分为福祉构建、福祉维护和福祉提升3大服务类别。这种服务分类框架可为生态系统服务评估以及服务与人类福祉耦合关系的相关研究提供帮助。 . 千年生态系统评估提出将"生态系统服务与人类福祉"作为未来生态学研究的核心内容,相关研究日益增多。然而,当前学界对生态系统服务的定义和分类仍存在争论,概念的混乱导致研究中对服务理解的分歧。本文在综述国内外主要生态系统服务定义和分类方案的基础上,利用从生态系统服务到人类福祉的服务级联框架,辨析生态系统服务形成过程中不同级联的联系和区别,探讨人类福祉的内涵及其与生态系统服务的联系,提出使用终端生态系统服务来连接生态系统与人类福祉,以此建立连接服务与多层次人类福祉的服务分类框架。根据终端生态系统服务所产生收益与不同层次人类福祉的关联,将生态系统服务划分为福祉构建、福祉维护和福祉提升3大服务类别。这种服务分类框架可为生态系统服务评估以及服务与人类福祉耦合关系的相关研究提供帮助。 |
| [60] | . 人类社会对生态系统服务的需求和消费日益增加,对生态系统状态和生态系统服务的可持续供给产 生了深刻影响。人类采取了一系列响应措施来维持生态系统的健康,其中通过生态补偿的途径来保护生态系统成为当前学术界关注的热点。本文的目的是结合脆弱生 态区的研究结果,对近年学术界在生态系统服务消费和生态补偿研究领域实质性进展进行论述,提出相关研究面临的挑战。分析表明,生态系统服务消费在理论研究 的基础上,正在向消费行为、消费方式、消费效用,以及对环境和社会经济综合影响的定量化研究发展;生态补偿研究在补偿标准厘定方面有了重要进展,利益相关 者分析方法的应用使得补偿主客体界定更具科学性。但是,应当充分重视相关研究面临的挑战和亟待解决的问题,为生态系统保护和满足人类福祉需求提供保障。 . 人类社会对生态系统服务的需求和消费日益增加,对生态系统状态和生态系统服务的可持续供给产 生了深刻影响。人类采取了一系列响应措施来维持生态系统的健康,其中通过生态补偿的途径来保护生态系统成为当前学术界关注的热点。本文的目的是结合脆弱生 态区的研究结果,对近年学术界在生态系统服务消费和生态补偿研究领域实质性进展进行论述,提出相关研究面临的挑战。分析表明,生态系统服务消费在理论研究 的基础上,正在向消费行为、消费方式、消费效用,以及对环境和社会经济综合影响的定量化研究发展;生态补偿研究在补偿标准厘定方面有了重要进展,利益相关 者分析方法的应用使得补偿主客体界定更具科学性。但是,应当充分重视相关研究面临的挑战和亟待解决的问题,为生态系统保护和满足人类福祉需求提供保障。 |
| [61] | . Spatial disconnections between locations where ecosystem services are produced and where they are used are common. To date most ecosystem service assessments have relied on static indicators of provision and often do not incorporate relations with the corresponding beneficiaries or benefiting areas. Most studies implicitly assume spatial and temporal connections between ecosystem service provision and beneficiaries, while the actual connections, i.e. , ecosystem service flows, are poorly understood. In this paper, we present a generic framework to analyze the spatial connections between the ecosystem service provisioning and benefiting areas. We introduce an indicator that shows the proportion of benefiting areas supported by spatial ecosystem service flows from provisioning areas. We illustrate the application of the framework and indicator by using global maps of provisioning and benefitting areas for pollination services. We also illustrate our framework and indicator using water provision and climate regulation services, as they portray important differences in spatiotemporal scale and process of service flow. We also describe the possible application of the framework for other services and other scales of assessment. We highlight how, depending on the ecosystem service being studied, the spatial service flows between provisioning and benefiting areas can limit service delivery, thereby reducing the local value of ecosystem service supply. |
| [62] | . . |
| [63] | , The Great Barrier Reef (GBR), Australia, is threatened by declining water quality largely derived from agricultural run-off. Water quality planning aims to mitigate pollutant run-off through land management, including riparian and wetland restoration, but no tools exist to assess trade-offs in land use change across the catchment-to-reef continuum. We adapted the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment framework in the GBR's Tully–Murray catchment to identify trade-offs between linked ecosystem services and stakeholders. Applying four land use scenarios we assessed outcomes for the ecosystem service of water quality regulation, and trade-offs with six floodplain services and four GBR services. Based on statistical correlations between ecosystem services’ status under the scenarios, we identified trade-offs and thresholds between services and associated stakeholders. The most direct trade-off in floodplain services (and primary stakeholders) was food and fibre production (farmers) versus water quality regulation (community, GBR tourists, tour operators and fishermen). There were synergies between water quality regulation (community, GBR tourists, tour operators and fishermen) and floodplain recreational and commercial fisheries (fishermen). Scale mis-matches between water quality management structures and ecosystem service flows were also evident. We discuss the strengths and weaknesses of this ecosystem services approach, and its potential application in the GBR and other catchment-to-reef social–ecological systems. |
| [64] | . In the search for an integrated understanding of the relationships among productive activities, human well-being, and ecosystem functioning, we evaluated the services delivered by a tropical dry forest (TDF) ecosystem in the Chamela Region, on the Pacific Coast of Mexico. We synthesized information gathered for the past two decades as part of a long-term ecosystem research study and included social data collected in the past four years using the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) conceptual framework as a guide. Here we identify the four nested spatial scales at which information has been obtained and emphasize one of them through a basin conceptual model. We then articulate the biophysical and socio-economic constraints and drivers determining the delivery of ecosystem services in the Region. We describe the nine most important services, the stakeholders who benefit from those services, and their degree of awareness of such services. We characterize spatial and temporal patterns of the services#039; delivery as well as trade-offs among services and stakeholders. Finally, we contrast three alternative future scenarios on the delivery of ecosystem services and human well-being. Biophysical and socioeconomic features of the study site strongly influence human#8722;ecosystem interactions, the ecosystem services delivered, the possible future trajectories of the ecosystem, and the effect on human well-being. We discuss future research approaches that will set the basis for an integrated understanding of human#8722;ecosystem interactions and for constructing sustainable management strategies for the TDF. |
| [65] | . Multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) is a decision aid frequently used in the field of forest management planning. It includes the evaluation of multiple criteria such as the production of timber and non-timber forest products and tangible as well as intangible values of ecosystem services (ES). Hence, it is beneficial compared to those methods that take a purely financial perspective. Accordingly, MCDA methods are increasingly popular in the wide field of sustainability assessment. Hybrid approaches allow aggregating MCDA and, potentially, other decision-making techniques to make use of their individual benefits and leading to a more holistic view of the actual consequences that come with certain decisions. This review is providing a comprehensive overview of hybrid approaches that are used in forest management planning. Today, the scientific world is facing increasing challenges regarding the evaluation of ES and the trade-offs between them, for example between provisioning and regulating services. As the preferences of multiple stakeholders are essential to improve the decision process in multi-purpose forestry, participatory and hybrid approaches turn out to be of particular importance. Accordingly, hybrid methods show great potential for becoming most relevant in future decision making. Based on the review presented here, the development of models for the use in planning processes should focus on participatory modeling and the consideration of uncertainty regarding available information. |
| [66] | . Increasingly, land managers seek ways to manage forests for multiple ecosystem services and functions, yet considerable challenges exist in comparing disparate services and balancing trade-offs among them. We applied multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) and forest simulation models to simultaneously consider three objectives: (1) storing carbon, (2) producing timber and wood products, and (3) sustaining biodiversity. We used the Forest Vegetation Simulator (FVS) applied to 42 northern hardwood sites to simulate forest development over 100 years and to estimate carbon storage and timber production. We estimated biodiversity implications with occupancy models for 51 terrestrial bird species that were linked to FVS outputs. We simulated four alternative management prescriptions that spanned a range of harvesting intensities and forest structure retention. We found that silvicultural approaches emphasizing less frequent harvesting and greater structural retention could be expected to achieve the greatest net carbon storage but also produce less timber. More intensive prescriptions would enhance biodiversity because positive responses of early successional species exceeded negative responses of late successional species within the heavily forested study area. The combinations of weights assigned to objectives had a large influence on which prescriptions were scored as optimal. Overall, we found that a diversity of silvicultural approaches is likely to be preferable to any single approach, emphasizing the need for landscape-scale management to provide a full range of ecosystem goods and services. Our analytical framework that combined MCDA with forest simulation modeling was a powerful tool in understanding trade-offs among management objectives and how they can be simultaneously accommodated. |
| [67] | . Criteria for the MCDA model were selected by experts, criteria importance was ranked by stakeholders and criteria values were assessed with qualitative and quantitative indicators. Eventually spruce forest was ranked as the best land-use alternative followed by traditional larch meadow and intensive meadow. The combined approach of MCDA using ecosystem services as criteria showed how criteria weightings and criteria indicator values influence land-use alternatives' performance. The MCDA-model visualizes the consequences of land-use change for ecosystem service provision, facilitating landscape planning by structuring environmental problems and providing data for decisions. |
| [68] | . The primary aims of forest management are to rank and evaluate the effects of forest management scenarios on human communities, landscapes, and the development of forest services, and to achieve a balance between the economic, environmental, social, and cultural uses of forests. Multi-criteria decision methodology offers an effective alternative to address such forest management issues, particularly if they involve multiple stakeholders including local communities, public representatives, and environmentalists each of which possess different knowledge, experiences, and prospects. Group methods, based on participatory planning, can be applied to integrate such different interests into an optimal, joint decision. It is for this reason that a new decision model based on a group fuzzy analytic network process was designed. In a case study of the forest area at Pohorje, Slovenia, alternative development scenarios were evaluated by means of the generated model. Six possible management scenarios defined by sustainability indicators were identified. The scenarios were compared and assessed by several stakeholders according to the results of a SWOT analysis. The results reveal that most attention should be devoted to preserved nature, cultural heritage, and local tradition. |
| [69] | . Land-use planning is an important determinant for green space policy in cities. It defines land covers and hence the structure and function of urban ecosystems and the benefits these provide to humans, such as air purification, urban cooling, runoff mitigation, and recreation. The ecosystem service approach has helped to attract policy attention to these benefits but the concept remains poorly implemented in urban policy and governance. To address this gap, we advance a framework to bridge ecosystem services into policy processes through Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) as decision support tool. The paper is organized in three main parts. First, we conduct a systematic literature review to assess state-of-the-art knowledge on ecosystem service assessments through MCDA. Next, we build on insights from the literature review to develop the ‘ecosystem services policy-cycle’, a conceptual framework that merges the ‘ecosystem service cascade’ and ‘policy cycle’ models to reinforce the link between ecosystem service assessments and practical applications in urban policy and governance. Next, we illustrate the applicability of the proposed framework along an example about conflicting interests on land use and green space planning following the closure of the Airport Tempelhof in Berlin, Germany. Our results highlight the scope of MCDA as a decision support tool for integrating ecosystem service assessments in green space governance. We discuss advantages and disadvantages of different methodological choices in the use of MCDA in ecosystem service assessments and note that a key strength of this tool in informing green space policies lies in its capacity to accommodate conflicting stakeholder perspectives and to address trade-offs between ecological, social and economic values. |
| [70] | . This paper explores the role of landscapes in generating ecosystem services while maximizing gross margin associated with agricultural commodity production. Ecosystem services considered include the reduction of nonpoint source pollutants such as sediment, phosphorous, and nitrogen yields from a watershed. The analysis relies on an integrative modeling framework that combines a comprehensive watershed model (SWAT) with a multiobjective evolutionary algorithm (SPEA2). Application of the resulting model to a watershed in southern Illinois demonstrates the effectiveness of the approach in providing tradeoff solutions between gross margin and the generation of ecosystem services. These solutions are important to policy makers and planners in that they provide information about the cost-effectiveness of alternative agricultural landscapes. |
| [71] | . 61We propose an ecosystem service framework to aid integrated water resources management.61We applied the framework to the Murray-Darling Basin, Australia.61We conducted multi-criteria decision analysis to rank regional ecosystem services supply capacity.61The framework has the potential to support integrated water resource management in an informed and transparent way. |
| [72] | . Collaborative management is a new framework to help implement programmes in protected areas. Within this context, the aim of this work is twofold. First, to propose a robust methodology to implement collaborative management focused on ecosystem services. Second, to develop indicators for the main functions of ecosystem services. Decision makers, technical staff and other stakeholders are included in the process from the beginning, by identifying ecosystem services and eliciting preferences using the AHP method. Qualitative and quantitative data are then integrated into a PROMETHEE based method in order to obtain indicators for provisioning, maintenance and direct to citizens services. This methodology, which has been applied in a forest area, provides a tool for exploiting available technical and social data in a continuous process, as well as providing easy to understand graphical results. This approach also overcomes the difficulties found in prioritizing management objectives in a multiple criteria context with limited resources and facilitates consensus between all of the people involved. The new indicators define an innovative approach to assessing the ecosystem services from the supply perspective and provide basic information to help establish payment systems for environmental services and compensation for natural disasters. |
| [73] | . The concept of ecosystem services (ES) has become mainstreamed in environmental planning and management recently, and with that various tools for quantifying ecosystem services have emerged. However, designing the tools for integrated assessment and optimization of multiple ES has become a challenging task. In order to promote the efficiency of ecosystem planning and management, we develop a spatial decision support tool named SAORES, which provides a platform for exploratory scenario analysis and optimal planning design, rather than ES assessment. SAORES is formed with four modules: the scenario development module, the integrated ecosystem service model base, the ecosystem service trade-off analysis module, and the multi-objective spatial optimization module based on NSGA-II. Using SAORES, we make a case study on the Yangou catchment of the Loess Plateau, China. Based on impact assessment of the Grain to green program (GTGP), we optimize the farmland retiring planning, involving multiple objectives which include the eco-compensation and the key ES. The integrated assessment shows that, the aim of the GTGP, the water and soil retention are prominent improved. Optimization for GTGP provides a series of optimal solutions, which are better than other single optimized solutions, and are twice the cost-effectiveness of the actual situation. SAORES, as a decision support tool, can improve the scenario analysis and multi-objective optimal planning design for ecosystem management and planning. The case study demonstrates the potential and effectiveness of SAORES and spatial multi-objective optimization model for ecosystem service management, especially in the Loess Plateau. |
| [74] | . Despite the growing body of literature on ecosystem services, still many challenges remain to structurally integrate ecosystem services in landscape planning, management and design. This paper therefore aims to provide an overview of the challenges involved in applying ecosystem service assessment and valuation to environmental management and discuss some solutions to come to a comprehensive and practical framework.First the issue of defining and classifying ecosystem services is discussed followed by approaches to quantify and value ecosystem services. The main part of the paper is focussed on the question how to analyze trade-offs involved in land cover and land use change, including spatial analysis and dynamic modelling tools. Issues of scale are addressed, as well as the question how to determine the total economic value of different management states.Finally, developments and challenges regarding the inclusion of ecosystem services in integrative landscape planning and decision-making tools are discussed.It is concluded that the ecosystem service approach and ecosystem service valuation efforts have changed the terms of discussion on nature conservation, natural resource management, and other areas of public policy. It is now widely recognized that nature conservation and conservation management strategies do not necessarily pose a trade-off between the “environment” and “development”. Investments in conservation, restoration and sustainable ecosystem use are increasingly seen as a “win-win situation” which generates substantial ecological, social and economic benefits. |
| [75] | . 与传统的数据相比，大数据的感知、获取、处理和表示都面临着巨大的挑战。森林生态系统作为陆地生态系统的主体，其所产生的服务功能在全球生态系统中发挥着极为重要的作用。森林生态系统服务功能评估在经历了小数据和表象大数据的评估阶段后，已经进入了大数据评估阶段。基于森林生态站长期监测数据开展的森林生态系统服务功能评估，能够在大数据中获取所需要的详细信息，开展多尺度镶嵌评估工作。同时，还可以避免小数据样本选择所带来的随机性误差，使得评估结果更趋于可靠，进而为森林资源的保护与可持续发展提供数据支撑。 . 与传统的数据相比，大数据的感知、获取、处理和表示都面临着巨大的挑战。森林生态系统作为陆地生态系统的主体，其所产生的服务功能在全球生态系统中发挥着极为重要的作用。森林生态系统服务功能评估在经历了小数据和表象大数据的评估阶段后，已经进入了大数据评估阶段。基于森林生态站长期监测数据开展的森林生态系统服务功能评估，能够在大数据中获取所需要的详细信息，开展多尺度镶嵌评估工作。同时，还可以避免小数据样本选择所带来的随机性误差，使得评估结果更趋于可靠，进而为森林资源的保护与可持续发展提供数据支撑。 |
| [76] | . Mapping the demand for ecosystem services (ES) has received increased attention in scientific research and is seen as a relevant tool to inform conservation planning, land use planning and management. Yet, there is a varying understanding of the concept of ES demand, which has implications on how and where ES demand is being mapped. In this paper we review the current conceptual understanding of ES demand, indicators to measure demand and the approaches used to quantify and map demand. We identified four distinct demand types , which relate to different ecosystem service categories. These demand types include demand expressed in terms of (1) risk reduction, (2) preferences and values, (3) direct use or (4) consumption of goods and services. Each of the demand types was linked to specific methods applied in the reviewed literature. We found that operationalization of ES demand in policy, planning and management requires a more consistent understanding and definition of ES demand, its drivers and its temporal dynamics. Furthermore, the impact of demands for multiple ecosystem services on land use change needs to be investigated. This will allow for the consideration of temporal and cross-level interactions between supply and demand of ecosystem services and its impacts in land use change modelling. |
| [77] | . <p>随着社会经济的发展,人类对生态系统的干扰导致多种生态服务退化或消失.生态系统服务流对生态系统服务的输送、转化和维持有重要作用，并成为相关研究的新兴方向之一.本文在对生态系统服务流进行分类的基础上，分析了生态系统服务传递的载体，初步探讨生态系统服务流的形成机制，包括服务流的形成、属性、尺度特征、定量化及其制图等.同时,对生态系统服务流的成本效应，如输送成本、转化成本、使用成本和成本相对性等进行尝试性分析，旨在分析生态系统服务流传递过程中的成本耗散.生态系统服务流研究一定程度上解决了生态系统服务价值评估的“双重核算”问题，使人类准确识别生态系统服务供给和消费热点区域，有利于生态系统服务在传递过程中达到效益最大化，对提出科学合理的生态补偿有重要意义.</p> . <p>随着社会经济的发展,人类对生态系统的干扰导致多种生态服务退化或消失.生态系统服务流对生态系统服务的输送、转化和维持有重要作用，并成为相关研究的新兴方向之一.本文在对生态系统服务流进行分类的基础上，分析了生态系统服务传递的载体，初步探讨生态系统服务流的形成机制，包括服务流的形成、属性、尺度特征、定量化及其制图等.同时,对生态系统服务流的成本效应，如输送成本、转化成本、使用成本和成本相对性等进行尝试性分析，旨在分析生态系统服务流传递过程中的成本耗散.生态系统服务流研究一定程度上解决了生态系统服务价值评估的“双重核算”问题，使人类准确识别生态系统服务供给和消费热点区域，有利于生态系统服务在传递过程中达到效益最大化，对提出科学合理的生态补偿有重要意义.</p> |
| [78] | . Global urbanization creates opportunities and challenges for human well-being and transition towards sustainability. Urban areas are human-environment systems that depend fundamentally on ecosystems, and thus require an understanding of the management of urban ecosystem services to ensure sustainable urban planning. The purpose of this study is to provide a systematic review of urban ecosystems services research, which addresses the combined domain of ecosystem services and urban development. We examined emerging trends and gaps in how urban ecosystem services are conceptualized in peer-reviewed case study literature, including the geographical distribution of research, the development and use of the urban ecosystem services concept, and the involvement of stakeholders. We highlight six challenges aimed at strengthening the concept's potential to facilitate meaningful inter- and transdisciplinary work for ecosystem services research and planning. Achieving a cohesive conceptual approach in the research field will address (i) the need for more extensive spatial and contextual coverage, (ii) continual clarification of definitions, (iii) recognition of limited data transferability, (iv) more comprehensive stakeholder involvement, (v) more integrated research efforts, and (vi) translation of scientific findings into actionable knowledge, feeding information back into planning and management. We conclude with recommendations for conducting further research while incorporating these challenges. |
