, 张捷Influencing factors and mechanism of community resilience in tourism destinations
GUOYongrui, ZHANGJie收稿日期:2017-05-21
修回日期:2017-09-27
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1 引言
随着自然灾害的频发以及社会经济的急速转型,恢复力逐渐成为推动社会经济系统可持续发展的新理念和新范式[1,2,3]。恢复力理论强调系统适应变化和应对干扰的能力,为理解系统的自组织能力和可持续发展提供了一种新的视角[4]。恢复力研究的对象单元逐渐从早期的生态系统拓展到社会经济系统。社区是人类活动和自然灾害产生影响的基本地理单元,通常也是自然灾害最直接的影响单元,培育社区恢复力可以有效地增强社区的适应能力。深入地理解旅游目的地社区恢复力影响因素的作用机制是旅游地理学研究的重要方向。目前相关研究集中在探讨旅游社区恢复力的理论框架[5,6,7,8]。乡村农户适应旅游发展的模式[9],旅游地社会—生态子系统恢复力的评价[10,11]、旅游企业的恢复力[12,13]等方面。尽管相关研究从理论上阐述了旅游目的地社区恢复力的影响因素,但是尚缺少深入的实证验证,未能深入探究不同影响因素对旅游目的地社区恢复力的作用机理,无法明晰旅游目的地社区恢复力的生成路径。
基于此,本文选择汶川大地震后的都江堰和九寨沟旅游社区为案例地,尝试构建一个由地方依恋、社区参与、职业认同、社区增权、社会资本五个关键影响因素组成的旅游目的地社区恢复力形成机制的结构方程模型,分析各因素对旅游目的地社区恢复力发挥作用的路径及影响程度。本文将有助于拓展旅游地理学的研究视角,为旅游目的地社区恢复力培育和保持提供理论支撑。具体的研究问题包括：① 关键影响因素对旅游目的地社区恢复力的作用程度如何?② 关键影响因素的综合作用机理如何?是否存在中介效应?
2 研究方法与数据来源
2.1 概念模型
2.1.1 旅游目的地社区恢复力 恢复力思想发源于生态学,指的是生态系统应对外在扰动的能力。恢复力研究从早期的仅关注生态系统的恢复力逐渐扩展到关注社会系统应对外来压力和扰动的能力。社区恢复力强调社区成员的能动性,重视自身的经验知识和学习能力在应对外部压力时的作用[14]。社区恢复力理论认为社区应对压力和扰动的能力不仅取决于自然和物质资源,更取决于社会经济因素。剖析社会因素对社区恢复力的影响机理是社区恢复力研究的关键议题。作为一种特殊的社区类型,旅游目的地社区的恢复力逐渐引起学界的关注,****们试图理清旅游目的地社区恢复力的影响因素及其作用机制。社区恢复力的影响因素主要来自于社会、管理（制度）和经济三个方面[2]。社会因素包括社会资本[15]、地方依恋[13]、社会关系网络[16]、社会信任[17]以及社会公平[18]等。管理（制度）因素包括集体效能[19]、社区参与[20]、权利共享[21]等。经济因素包括生计方式的多样性[20]、经济发展潜力[22]、经济机会的多样性[18]、减少经济漏损[23]等。虽然****们从理论上提出了社区恢复力的影响因素,但是缺乏相应的实证研究,尤其缺少对旅游目的地社区恢复力影响因素及其作用机理的实证测度。据此,本文依据文献回顾,选取地方依恋、职业认同、社区参与、社区增权和社会资本这五个关键影响因素,综合分析其作用机理,探究旅游目的地社区恢复力的生成路径。
2.1.2 地方依恋 地方依恋指的是人对于特定地方的情感性联系[24,25,26]。地方依恋包含地方认同和地方依赖两个维度,分别对应人对地方的情感性和功能性依恋[27]。人对地方的情感影响人的生活态度与生活方式。具有强烈地方依恋的人往往深爱着这个地方,积极地参与到社区建设中去[28,29,30]。这种强烈社区归属感可以有效增强社区凝聚力,为社区的集体行动提供动力,从而促进社区参与灾害应对行为[31,32]。基于理论阐述和现有文献,做出以下假设：
H1：地方依恋对旅游目的地社区恢复力具有正向影响。
2.1.3 职业认同 职业认同指的是从业者对某一特定行业的情感和认同[33]。一些****认为职业认同阻碍了社区企业业主对变化的适应能力,降低了企业应对危机的适应能力[33,34,35]。然而,一些研究指出,旅游从业者的职业认同可以有效增强企业的恢复力[12,36]。对特定行业的情感性依恋越强,越能承受行业所面临的危机和困难。人们依靠其从事的职业而生活,围绕职业形成了特定的社交网络和生活休闲爱好,从而对其从事的职业具有较强的依恋。这种情感有助于增强人们心理上的稳定性。因此,职业认同可以激发企业业主主动适应外部变化,从而增强自身恢复力。基于理论阐述和现有文献,做出以下假设：
H2：职业认同对旅游目的地社区恢复力具有正向影响。
2.1.4 社区参与 社区成员参与旅游发展与决策是推动旅游目的地可持续发展的关键[37,38,39]。社区参与是社区成员参与社区活动、承担社区责任的一种积极行为。社区成员积极的参与旅游发展有利于形成共同的社区价值,这是旅游目的地可持续发展的重要驱动力[40]。居民参与社区决策的积极结果已经被许多研究所证明,包括为应对危机而进行的资源调用行为[16],打破社区权益的不平等[41]以及建立长期的可持续发展目标[42]。社区参与有利于培育良好的社区关系,增强情感沟通,从而提升社区能力[20]。本文所涉及的社区参与主要包括居民对当地旅游管理活动的参与程度、旅游培训情况以及旅游政策的制定是否征求了社区居民的意见三个方面。基于理论阐述和现有文献,做出以下假设：
H3：社区参与对旅游目的地社区恢复力具有正向影响。
2.1.5 社区增权 社区的脆弱性很大程度上是由于社区成员在面临灾害时缺少选择性,而这种选择性的缺失是权利和资源的不均衡分布所导致的。对社区成员进行增权是推动目的地可持续发展的重要举措。如果忽略对旅游目的地社区权力和政治关系的了解,仅将社区参与视为一个技术手段或理念,则会显著的影响旅游社区参与的效果[39]。影响资源接近性和控制力差异的主要因素包括利益相关者间的竞争性行为,多尺度管理系统的力度和效率以及行动者之间的社会网络关系[43]。社区增权可以强化社区的集体行动能力,从而进一步增强社区适应能力,基于此提出的社区感知恢复力指数包含领导力和增权、负面地理环境特征感知和社区参与三个维度[44]。作为旅游目的地社区可持续发展的重要理论指导,社区增权包括经济、心理、社会、政治四个层面的增权[45]。基于理论阐述和现有文献,做出以下假设：
H4：社区参与对社区增权具有正向影响;
H6：社区增权对旅游目的地社区恢复力具有正向影响。
2.1.6 社会资本 社会资本指社会系统成员凭借自身的关系网络,可以集聚和利用的有利于实现自身目标的一种社会性资源[46]。社会资本是一种潜在或实际的资源,融洽的社会关系有利于社会资本这一资源价值的展现[47]。社会资本可分为粘合型、桥接型和连接型社会资本[47]。粘合性社会资本强调家庭成员间的亲情关系,有助于增强较小范围的成员间的互助。桥接型社会资本主要是指邻里、朋友和商业合作者之间的关系,能够连结外部资源并促进信息的流动。连接型社会资本是指与当地政府、管理机构和社会组织之间的关系,有助于社区成员和当地管理机构间的信任和合作。社会资本基于其成员间的信任、关系网络和互惠等特点,可以有效地促进成员间的合作,促进社区的发展[48]。社会资本直接影响社区灾害适应能力,这些社会资本包括社区成员间的信任、网络、互惠性以及集体行动能力[49]。基于理论阐述和现有文献,做出以下假设：
H7：社会资本对旅游目的地社区恢复力具有正向影响。
社区参与是产生社会资本的主要途径[50]。社区成员间的联系和交流可以提升相互间信任和理解。经常参与社区事务的社区成员更易于同其他成员产生更加强烈的联系,扩展自身的社会网络。社区成员积极地参与当地的旅游管理活动可以增强社区的社会网络、管理效率、社会融合以及社区感。参与社区事务也可能推动社区成员形成共同的发展使命和愿景。基于上述分析,提出以下研究假设：
H5：社区参与对社会资本具有正向影响。
地方依恋是人对地方的热爱,职业认同是社区成员对所从事行业的热爱,具有较高地方依恋和职业认同的社区成员会积极的参与到社区活动中去,而积极地参与社区事务也会增强个人的地方依恋和职业认同,三者之间存在相关性。基于上述分析,提出以下研究假设：
H8a：社区参与和地方依恋之间存在相关关系;
H8b：社区参与和职业认同之间存在相关关系;
H8c：地方依恋和职业认同之间存在相关关系。
2.1.7 研究假设与概念模型 根据已有研究假设,本文构建了旅游目的地社区恢复力影响因素作用机理的概念模型（图1）,该模型由6个结构变量和10个研究假设构成。
显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT图1概念模型
-->Fig. 1Conceptual model
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2.2 案例地概况
本文选择四川省九寨沟和都江堰作为案例地。2008年汶川大地震波及范围广、具有极大的破坏性,对四川省旅游业带来了巨大损失[51]。据测算,地震灾害造成的旅游业直接损失总值为465.92亿元[52]。经过多年的努力,九寨沟和都江堰旅游目的地已经从地震影响中恢复,现在正是深入调研两个社区恢复力的影响因素及其作用机制的最优时机。汶川大地震对都江堰和九寨沟旅游业的影响程度和性质存在差异,如表1所示。汶川大地震损坏了都江堰的旅游基础设施以及旅游资源。对九寨沟旅游业而言,地震的影响主要是交通中断导致的客流减少。从区位条件看,都江堰属于都市毗邻区,而九寨沟属于边远型旅游目的地。另外,之所以选择都江堰和九寨沟两个区域进行调研采样,是因为如果从理论梳理提出的假设能够被多个区域的调查数据验证,则更能说明提出的命题和假设具有普遍意义。如果不同区域调研分析的结果具有显著差异,则可以通过分析其成因,更加系统地了解旅游目的地社区恢复力的作用机制。
Tab. 1
表1
表1都江堰和九寨沟旅游社区受地震影响的差异性特征
Tab. 1Differences between the Dujiangyan and the Jiuzhaigou affected by the 2008 Sichuan earthquake
| 特征 | 都江堰 | 九寨沟 |
|---|---|---|
| 地震影响程度 | 极重灾区 | 重灾区 |
| 地震影响性质 | 破坏基础设施及旅游资源 | 游客人数减少 |
| 社区类型 | 都市毗邻区 | 边远区 |
| 旅游业依赖程度 | 中 | 强 |
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2.3 问卷设计与变量衡量
本文在借鉴已有研究量表的基础上,结合案例地实际以及相关专家的意见,选择和设计测量量表。调查问卷由两部分组成。第一部分为社区成员的基本信息。第二部分包括旅游目的地社区恢复力结构模型中的六个潜变量。调查问卷共37道题项,所有题项均为5分制量表,1代表非常不同意,2代表不同意,3表示中立或不确定,4表示同意,5代表非常同意。其中,“旅游目的地社区恢复力”“地方依恋”和“社会资本”为多维构念。“旅游目的地社区恢复力”变量中的测量指标参考了Marshall的研究成果[53],该量表共12个测项,分属CR1~CR4四个次维度。“地方依恋”引自于Williams等的研究成果,共7个测项,分属地方认同和地方依赖两个次维度[54]。“社会资本”引自Vera-Toscano等的研究成果,包含粘合型、桥接型和连接型三种类型的社会资本,共7个测项[55]。
结构方程模型中,测量题项较多,会导致过多的随机误差。减少随机误差的常用方法是进行项目组合,也即将各变量次维度各测项的平均值作为相应概念的计量指标,以缩减模型待估参数的数量,提高计算结果的稳定性[56,57]。基于此,旅游目的地社区恢复力、地方依恋和社会资本的次维度采用其观察变量的均值作为新的指标。各变量的具体测量指标如表2所示。
Tab. 2
表2
表2各变量具体测量指标
Tab. 2Measurements of variables
| 变量 | 观测指标 | 参考文献 |
|---|---|---|
| 旅游目的地社区恢复力 | CR1风险应对能力 | Marshall等[53] |
| CR2社区的计划、学习和重组能力 | ||
| CR3变化应对能力 | ||
| CR4对变化的兴趣 | ||
| 地方依恋 | PA1地方认同 | Williams等[54] |
| PA2地方依赖 | ||
| 职业认同 | OA1从事旅游业对我而言不仅仅是工作,更是一种生活方式 | Biggs等[58];Marshall等[59];Marshall等[33] |
| OA2我喜欢从事旅游业。 | ||
| OA3我喜欢和别人分享我的工作经验和知识 | ||
| OA4从事旅游业使我的职业地位得到提高 | ||
| 社区参与 | CP1我经常参加当地的管理活动 | Liu等[60]; Tosun[61] |
| CP2我经常参加当地组织的旅游培训活动 | ||
| CP3旅游政策制定征求了居民的意见 | ||
| 社区增权 | CE1旅游业改善了我的经济条件 | 孙九霞[45] |
| CE2我为本地文化和资源感到骄傲 | ||
| CE3旅游业的发展增强本地社区的凝聚力 | ||
| CE4我的利益和诉求可以得到表达 | ||
| 社会资本 | SC1粘合型社会资本 | Vera-Toscano等[55] |
| SC2桥接型社会资本 | ||
| SC3连接型社会资本 |
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3 结果分析
3.1 描述性统计分析
调研团队由南京大学旅游地理专业研究生组成。为提高问卷的回收率与调研质量,采取了赠送纪念品的方式,并选择旅游客流较少的上午发放问卷。在被试年龄控制上,未包含18岁以下的未成年人。调研采取半随机抽样的方法,基本上按照每个旅游居民家庭发放一张问卷的原则。都江堰调研时间为2014年5月8-10日,调研地点为都江堰的灌县古城和泰安古镇,一共回收320份问卷,其中有效问卷311份,有效率为97.2%。九寨沟调研时间为2014年5月16-21日,一共回收390份问卷,其中有效问卷380份,有效率为97.4%。在总样本中,男士291人,占总样本的42.1%,女士400人,占57.9%。民族构成以汉族为主体,占总样本的84.1%。在年龄构成上以18~49岁之间为主,占总样本的91.3%。社区居民总体文化水平较低。样本中出生于本地的居民略高于外来居民数量,占58.2%。旅游企业创立于2008年汶川大地震之前的比例为56.2%。涉及的行业以餐饮和旅游纪念品销售为主,分别占44.9%和32.7%。企业所雇佣员工较少,5个员工以下的企业占82.6%。企业绝大部分为私人所有,占总样本的79.6%。企业营业收入不高,54.4%的企业年收入低于5万元。
3.2 信度与效度
在进行实证数据分析前,需要对测量量表进行信度和效度分析。KMO值是评判整体量表是否可以进行因子分析的一个指标。KMO越接近1,越适宜进行因子分析,表示变量之间存在更多的共性。根据计算结果,本文所涉及的各变量量表的KMO值均大于0.6,Bartlett球形检验均显著,Cronbach's α值大于0.6的统计标准,表明测量工具呈现良好的内部一致性。旅游目的地社区恢复力量表观察变量的因子载荷最小值为0.612,最高值为0.831,探索性因子分析的结论与Mrshall等的结论相一致,表明该量表适用于旅游目的地社区恢复力的测度。表3列出了概念模型的内在结构适配度指标。构念的内部一致性主要根据潜变量的组合信度（CR值）进行判断。CR值越高,构念的内部一致性越高。CR值大于0.6是可接受的门槛。根据计算结果,测量模型中各变量的CR值为0.590~0.872,除粘合型社会资本略小于0.6以外,其他各变量均高于0.6,达到统计要求。平均方差抽取量（AVE）指的是由测量误差所导致的被潜变量所阐释的变异量的大小,其值愈大,表明指标越能更好的代表所要测量的构念。通常的判别标准是AVE值要高于0.5,Fornell等认为0.36~0.5是可接受门槛[62]。从表3可知,各变量的AVE均大于0.36,能够达到较佳的效度水平。
Tab. 3
表3
表3概念模型的内在结构适配度指标
Tab. 3Goodness-of-fit index of the model
| 变量 | 指标 | 项目数 | CR | AVE |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 旅游目的地社区恢复力 | CR1风险应对能力 | 3 | 0.749 | 0.501 |
| CR2社区的计划、学习和重组能力 | 3 | 0.784 | 0.548 | |
| CR3变化应对能力 | 3 | 0.740 | 0.491 | |
| CR4对变化的兴趣 | 3 | 0.729 | 0.476 | |
| 地方依恋 | PA1地方认同 | 4 | 0.872 | 0.577 |
| PA2地方依赖 | 3 | 0.817 | 0.600 | |
| 职业认同 | 4 | 0.851 | 0.534 | |
| 社区参与 | 3 | 0.804 | 0.585 | |
| 社区增权 | 4 | 0.789 | 0.484 | |
| 社会资本 | SC1粘合型社会资本 | 2 | 0.590 | 0.419 |
| SC2桥接型社会资本 | 2 | 0.729 | 0.574 | |
| SC3连接型社会资本 | 3 | 0.795 | 0.564 |
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3.3 概念模型检验
在对结构模型进行检验之前,首先检验样本数据是否符合正态分布。样本数据的偏度值为-1.025~0.151,峰度值为-0.378~2.775,样本数据呈现正态分布。误差方差计算结果显示,其值为0.041~0.104,未出现负值;标准化参数值范围为0.105~0.801,符合要求,违反估计现象未存在。根据拟合度检验结果（表4）可知,卡方自由度比值为3.9,达到统计要求。整体拟合度指数中GFI=0.906,CFI=0.921,IFI=0.921,RMSEA=0.066,RMR=0.033,PNFI=0.755,PGFI=0.691,达到统计标准。拟合度指数中AGFI=0.877,NFI=0.897,虽然略小于理想值0.9,但是皆在可接受的范围内。综合来说,模型具有较好的对数据的拟合能力。
Tab. 4
表4
表4概念模型的拟合度指数
Tab. 4Fit index of conceptual model
| 指标 | 绝对拟合指数 | 简约拟合指数 | 相对拟合指数 | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| x2/df | RMR | AGFI | RMSEA | GFI | PGFI | PNFI | IFI | CFI | NFI | |||
| 理想值 | 1~5 | <0.05 | >0.9 | <0.08 | >0.9 | >0.5 | >0.5 | >0.9 | >0.9 | >0.9 | ||
| 概念模型 | 3.9 | 0.033 | 0.877 | 0.066 | 0.906 | 0.691 | 0.755 | 0.921 | 0.921 | 0.897 | ||
| 九寨沟群组 | 2.8 | 0.035 | 0.844 | 0.072 | 0.881 | 0.671 | 0.721 | 0.902 | 0.901 | 0.856 | ||
| 都江堰群组 | 2.7 | 0.041 | 0.826 | 0.076 | 0.867 | 0.661 | 0.725 | 0.908 | 0.907 | 0.861 | ||
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影响因素的作用程度可以依据路径系数进行分析。结果如图2和表5所示,结构模型中各潜变量之间的关系与概念模型相符,模型具有较强的解释能力。地方依恋对旅游目的地社区恢复力的影响系数为0.11,且在0.05的水平上显著,表明具有显著的正向影响关系,研究假设H1成立。职业认同对旅游目的地社区恢复力的影响系数为0.23,且在0.01的水平上显著,研究假设H2成立。社区参与显著的正向影响旅游目的地社区恢复力,路径系数为0.31,且在0.05的水平上显著,研究假设H3成立。社区参与对社区增权和社会资本的影响系数分别为0.76和0.80,且均在0.001的水平上显著,研究假设H4和H5均成立。社区增权对旅游目的地社区恢复力影响的路径系数为0.16,且在0.01的水平上显著,研究假设H6成立。社会资本对旅游目的地社区恢复力影响的路径系数为0.27,且在0.001的水平上显著,研究假设H7成立。社区参与、地方依恋和职业认同变量间存在相关性,支持研究假设H8。根据相关研究,判定影响强度的依据是标准化路径系数,其值低于0.1是小效果,0.1~0.3是中效果,0.3~0.5是强效果,大于0.5则表示影响效果十分强烈[63]。按照此标准,旅游社区居民的地方依恋、职业认同、社区增权和社会资本对旅游目的地社区恢复力的作用强调属于中效果,社区参与对旅游目的地社区恢复力的作用强度属于强效果。
显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT图2概念模型的标准化参数估计
注：*表示在0.05水平上显著;**表示在0.01水平上显著;***表示在0.001水平上显著。
-->Fig. 2Standardized parameter estimates of conceptual model
-->
Tab. 5
表5
表5标准化估计值
Tab. 5Standardized estimates
| 研究假设 | 路径关系 | 标准化路径系数 | t值 | 检定结果 | 影响程度 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| H1 | 地方依恋→旅游目的地社区恢复力 | 0.11 | 1.997 | 成立 | 中 |
| H2 | 职业认同→旅游目的地社区恢复力 | 0.23 | 2.848 | 成立 | 中 |
| H3 | 社区参与→旅游目的地社区恢复力 | 0.31 | 2.321 | 成立 | 强 |
| H6 | 社区增权→旅游目的地社区恢复力 | 0.16 | 2.660 | 成立 | 中 |
| H7 | 社会资本→旅游目的地社区恢复力 | 0.27 | 3.440 | 成立 | 中 |
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3.4 结构模型的跨区域对比
本文分别运用九寨沟样本和都江堰样本,通过设定不同约束条件,检验结构模型的因素恒等性,用以判定旅游目的地社区恢复力影响因素整合模型在不同区域是否具有有效性和稳定性[64,65]。对九寨沟样本和都江堰样本分别进行验证性因子分析,结果如表4所示。九寨沟和都江堰群组的拟合指数中,RMSEA、RMR、CFI、IFI、PNFI、PGFI值均达到理想标准。GFI、AGFI和NFI略小于0.9的理想值。但是许多专家认为0.9的标准过于严格。Hadjistavropoulos等认为GFI、AGFI和NFI大于0.8即表示具有较好的拟合度[66]。根据此标准可以认为,模型具有较好的对数据的拟合能力。从模型的因素恒等性结果（表6）可知,随着结构模型限制条件的逐步严格,卡方的增加值均不显著,并且拟合指数符合统计要求,表明旅游目的地社区恢复力影响因素整合模型通过了恒等性测试,可以在不同的样本间应用,具有普遍意义。
Tab. 6
表6
表6概念模型的因素恒等性检验
Tab. 6Goodness-of-fit of invariant measurement
| 限制条件 | x2 | df | P值 | RMSEA | CFI | GFI | IFI | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 模型一 | 未加限制 | 885.56 | 320 | 0.052 | 0.904 | 0.875 | 0.905 | |
| 模型二 | 限制因子负荷相同 | 910.83 | 334 | 0.055 | 0.051 | 0.902 | 0.871 | 0.903 |
| 模型三 | 限制因子负荷和路径系数相同 | 913.05 | 341 | 0.155 | 0.051 | 0.902 | 0.871 | 0.904 |
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3.5 中介效应分析
本文将社区增权和社会资本作为中介变量,检验社区增权和社会资本对社区参与和旅游目的地社区恢复力关系的中介作用。对于中介效果的检定,本文采取Bootstrap法。通过运用Bootstrap法,进行2000次抽样检定对中介效果进行检验（表7）。检定结果表明,间接效应（中介效应）的Bias-Corrected 95% 置信区间值为0.126~0.438,Percentile 95%置信区间值为0.113~0.445,均未包含0,表明社区增权和社会资本的中介作用存在。直接效应中,Bias-Corrected 95% 置信区间值为0.069~0.573,Percentile 95%置信区间值为0.064~0.564,均未包含0,表明社区参与对旅游目的地社区恢复力关系的直接效应同样存在,社区增权和社会资本的中介效果为部分间接中介。社区参与对旅游目的地社区恢复力的间接效应为0.268,直接效应为0.242,间接效应大于直接效应。研究表明,社区增权和社会资本对社区参与和旅游目的地社区恢复力关系的起着重要中介作用。
Tab. 7
表7
表7结构模型中介效应Bootstrap检定（Bootstrap=2000）
Tab. 7Mediation role of the latent variables in structural model (Bootstrap=2000)
| 路径 效应 | 作用 强度 | Bootstrapping | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bias-corrected 95% CI | Percentile 95% CI | ||||
| Lower | Upper | Lower | Upper | ||
| 总效应 | 0.510 | 0.367 | 0.755 | 0.363 | 0.742 |
| 间接效应 | 0.268 | 0.126 | 0.438 | 0.113 | 0.445 |
| 直接效应 | 0.242 | 0.069 | 0.573 | 0.064 | 0.564 |
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4 结论与讨论
（1）根据研究结果发现,地方依恋、职业认同、社区参与、社区增权和社会资本显著的正向影响旅游目的地社区恢复力。按照影响程度,地方依恋、职业认同、社区增权和社会资本对旅游目的地社区恢复力的影响属于中效果,社区参与对旅游目的地社区恢复力的影响属于强效果。（2）地方依恋显著的正向影响旅游目的地社区恢复力。当旅游目的地社区成员对地方具有强烈的感情时,往往会积极的参与社区建设、社区发展以及社区的灾害应对行动。强烈的地方依恋可以增强旅游目的地社区成员间的互助行为,增强社区凝聚力,形成紧密的社会关系网络,从而增强灾害恢复力。
（3）职业认同对旅游目的地社区恢复力的影响程度略高于地方依恋。职业认同是旅游从业者对行业的一种情感性依恋,这种情感越强,越能激发从业者更加主动和积极的应对面临的灾害和危机。
（4）社区增权显著的正向影响旅游目的地社区恢复力。通过社区增权,有利于逐步消除社区权益的不平等分配,形成和谐的利益相关者关系。社区增权可以使旅游目的地社区成员的利益和诉求得到有效的表达,从而有益于形成有效的旅游目的地社区管理体制,从而提升旅游目的地社区应对灾害的适应能力。
（5）社会资本显著的正向影响旅游目的地社区恢复力。社会资本可以显著增强社区成员间的情感支持、互帮互助以及资源的高效使用。虽然灾害可以对旅游目的地社区的人员、服务设施、基础设施造成损害,但是无法破坏社区成员间的联系,旅游目的地社区成员之间关系网络仍会得以保存。同样发挥作用的还有既已存在的社会结构和规范。社会资本的这些属性使其成为旅游企业和旅游目的地社区灾后恢复的最可依赖的基础资源之一。作为一种非制度性因素,社会资本在灾后旅游目的地社区恢复中发挥着重要作用,可以在一定程度上弥补正式制度的缺失。
（6）社区参与是影响旅游目的地社区恢复力的最显著因素。旅游目的地社区居民主动参与社区事务可以实现社区价值的整合,有利于形成共同的发展愿景和行动路径,从而推动旅游目的地社区的可持续发展。社区参与通过三种方式影响旅游目的地社区恢复力,社区参与本身可以直接影响旅游目的地社区恢复力,同时也可以通过社会资本和社区增权间接影响旅游目的地社区恢复力。
本文对旅游目的地社区恢复力影响因素及其作用机制的研究,在理论上,充实了旅游目的地社区恢复力和旅游可持续发展研究的内容和视角;在实践上,为增强旅游目的地适应能力提供了理论指导。在未来研究中,需要在此基础上,结合中国旅游目的地管理的特点,探索适合国情的旅游目的地社区恢复力培育路径和管理体制。
The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
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被引期刊影响因子
| [1] | . <p>随着自然灾害的频发以及社会经济的急速转型，恢复力逐渐成为推动社会经济系统可持续发展的新理念和新范式。社区恢复力开始成为理解社区应对环境和社会变化的重要理论框架。旅游业是旅游目的地社区的重要经济来源，是提升社区生计的重要方式，深入理解旅游社区恢复力已成为旅游研究的重要方向。作为旅游研究的前沿领域，旅游社区恢复力研究发展迅速，取得了一些富有成效的研究成果。文章对涉及旅游社区恢复力研究的国内外研究文献，从研究缘起、理论框架、影响因素、测度方法、恢复力思维下的旅游影响研究以及管理体制角度进行了综述。在此基础上，文章提出该领域未来研究需要关注的重要方向，期望能够为国内旅游社区恢复力研究提供有益的参考。</p> . <p>随着自然灾害的频发以及社会经济的急速转型，恢复力逐渐成为推动社会经济系统可持续发展的新理念和新范式。社区恢复力开始成为理解社区应对环境和社会变化的重要理论框架。旅游业是旅游目的地社区的重要经济来源，是提升社区生计的重要方式，深入理解旅游社区恢复力已成为旅游研究的重要方向。作为旅游研究的前沿领域，旅游社区恢复力研究发展迅速，取得了一些富有成效的研究成果。文章对涉及旅游社区恢复力研究的国内外研究文献，从研究缘起、理论框架、影响因素、测度方法、恢复力思维下的旅游影响研究以及管理体制角度进行了综述。在此基础上，文章提出该领域未来研究需要关注的重要方向，期望能够为国内旅游社区恢复力研究提供有益的参考。</p> |
| [2] | . 随着人口、资源与环境的矛盾日益加深,灾害已成为可持续发展的重要障碍。在这一背景下,恢复力成为推动社会经济系统可持续发展的新理念和新范式。恢复力研究的范式也由早期的生态恢复力逐渐转向社区恢复力的研究。现有的社区恢复力研究成果主要集中在概念内涵探索、影响因素识别、基于客观指标和基于行动者感知的社区恢复力测度等方面。迄今尚未形成公认的可接受的社区恢复力理论框架;对普通乡村社区研究较多,对特定资源依赖型社区恢复力研究较少;对突发性自然灾害对社区恢复力的影响研究较多,对其他灾害和危机对社区恢复力的影响研究较少;社区恢复力测度方法的适用性和科学性仍待加强;社区恢复力关键影响因素的作用机制仍需进一步探索。在此基础上,提出从地理学视角研究社区恢复力的主要议题,包括社区恢复力的形成机制及其区域差异、动态演变过程、影响因素的作用机理、基于人地关系的社区恢复力感知量表以及具有尺度效应的社区恢复力测度指数等。 . 随着人口、资源与环境的矛盾日益加深,灾害已成为可持续发展的重要障碍。在这一背景下,恢复力成为推动社会经济系统可持续发展的新理念和新范式。恢复力研究的范式也由早期的生态恢复力逐渐转向社区恢复力的研究。现有的社区恢复力研究成果主要集中在概念内涵探索、影响因素识别、基于客观指标和基于行动者感知的社区恢复力测度等方面。迄今尚未形成公认的可接受的社区恢复力理论框架;对普通乡村社区研究较多,对特定资源依赖型社区恢复力研究较少;对突发性自然灾害对社区恢复力的影响研究较多,对其他灾害和危机对社区恢复力的影响研究较少;社区恢复力测度方法的适用性和科学性仍待加强;社区恢复力关键影响因素的作用机制仍需进一步探索。在此基础上,提出从地理学视角研究社区恢复力的主要议题,包括社区恢复力的形成机制及其区域差异、动态演变过程、影响因素的作用机理、基于人地关系的社区恢复力感知量表以及具有尺度效应的社区恢复力测度指数等。 |
| [3] | . Resilience planning has emerged in recent years as an alternative to the sustainable development paradigm to provide new perspectives on community development and socio-ecological adjustments to a rapidly changing world. Tourism scholars have been somewhat slow to adopt the recent conceptual ideas related to community resilience that have been published in other disciplinary areas, though this situation is also changing rapidly. While most resilience research focuses on major disasters and crises, new frameworks that encompass slow change variables provide a more comprehensive view on resilience. A model for tourism resilience considers this rate of change (transitioning from slow to fast), and the scale of tourism interest (scaling from that of the entrepreneur to those that are community-wide). The resulting 2 2 matrix presents four contexts with distinct resilience issues, methodologies and measurements, ranging from entrepreneurs managing daily maintenance needs, to community disaster readiness, response and recovery. |
| [4] | |
| [5] | . The impact of the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami on multiple tourism destinations was a striking reminder of the vulnerability of tourism-dependent destination communities to shocks and stressors. However, the causal drivers of destination vulnerability remain under-researched. Furthermore, there are few studies that systematically apply and test the usefulness of new theoretical frameworks in asses... |
| [6] | . The tourism sector is particularly vulnerable to changes in climate, as it is often the weather that sets the parameters for various forms of tourism. Despite this, little research has been done to assist tourism destinations in adapting to climate change. Adaptation aims to moderate, cope with, and benefit from the consequences of climate change in order to manage risk and reduce vulnerability. Most adaptation models focus on the risks of climate change, missing the potential opportunities that may emerge due to climate change. Furthermore, the role of the tourist is largely neglected. This paper provides an analysis of existing adaptation models for tourism before proposing a conceptual framework for regional adaptation to climate change which takes into account both supply- and demand-side perspectives. Consequently, the proposed model provides a holistic approach to adaptation that aims to increase resilience and resistance to climate change by implementing appropriate adaptation strategies that reduce vulnerability, while increasing readiness to capitalise on opportunities presented by climate change. |
| [7] | . The concept of resilience offers a coherent interpretation of linked human and environmental processes, and is increasingly accepted as a framework for understanding world systems. Resilience theory was developed in the early 1970s to model fluctuations in ecological systems, and was later applied to linked social-ecological systems. It has been explored in a range of anthropogenic contexts, including recent applications to tourism. Resilience is related to vulnerability approaches, popular amongst development practitioners, and has roots in complexity science. Tourism is a good example of a complex adaptive system and, as Farrell and Twining-Ward (2004) remarked, lends itself to the integrative, interdisciplinary and non-linear approach to interpreting the world which is fundamental to resilience. Applied to tourism systems, resilience explains the deeper forces underlying Butler's ‘Tourism Area Life-Cycle’, proposed in 1980 when tourism destination development was thought to progress in a linear fashion. Later versions of the model proposed a ‘rejuvenation’ stage, but the resilience concept goes further in explaining the cyclical and complex nature of systems, based on recovery from perturbation and the accumulation of various forms of capital which allow faster renewal and stronger structures. This paper explains the cycle and applies it to tourism in Asia, drawing on research into World Heritage Sites, community-based tourism and recovery from the Asian tsunami. Although resilience and complexity science are inherently anti-reductionist, factors underlying resilient systems are identified in order to link the conceptual discussion to a real world realm and formed into a model termed ‘the Sphere of Tourism Resilience’. |
| [8] | . Studied for decades in disciplines such as ecology, psychology, engineering and sociology ‘resilience’ can be defined as a system's ability to withstand and respond to change. The tourism literature has embraced the concept of community resilience by harnessing concepts of adaptive capacity and vulnerability. Many of these studies have focused on the tourism system's ability to respond to short-term disasters and hazards. With the growth of resilience studies in tourism, it is timely to take stock of the core premise of resilience as it is applied to tourism and to identify key gaps in current research. Consequently, this research aims to identify the core concepts of community resilience, with a focus on its application within tourism. The findings reveal that many studies have been conceptual, although there are an increasing number of empirical studies underpinned by resilience theory. Therefore, a conceptual model is presented to broaden existing resilience research and to guide future research into community resilience to tourism decline and rejuvenation. |
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| [10] | . 旅游地社会-生态系统恢复力研究是当前旅游可持续发展研究的新视角。从脆弱性和应对能力两方面分别建立旅游地社会、经济和生态子系统的恢复力指标体系，采用集对分析法，对浙江省淳安县1987-2012年的各子系统恢复力进行测度和比较分析。结果表明：（1）程度与趋势上，3个子系统脆弱性均处于中等水平，但社会子系统呈下降趋势，经济子系统呈先降后升态势，生态子系统呈上升趋势;应对能力和恢复力基本同步增长，3个子系统均呈上升趋势，目前处于相对高级水平。（2）变化幅度上，脆弱性方面，生态子系统变幅相对最大，经济子系统相对最高;应对能力方面，3个子系统均经历了由相对较弱到较强的过程，且阶段节点大致相同，其中社会子系统由最弱变为最强，生态系统变化由最强变至最弱。（3）恢复力方面，社会子系统增长最强劲，经济子系统具有波动性，生态子系统变幅最小。生态和经济子系统脆弱性尤应受到关注，应对能力应注意系统物质资本的积累，避免过多注重社会能力的创造，真正提高系统恢复力。 . 旅游地社会-生态系统恢复力研究是当前旅游可持续发展研究的新视角。从脆弱性和应对能力两方面分别建立旅游地社会、经济和生态子系统的恢复力指标体系，采用集对分析法，对浙江省淳安县1987-2012年的各子系统恢复力进行测度和比较分析。结果表明：（1）程度与趋势上，3个子系统脆弱性均处于中等水平，但社会子系统呈下降趋势，经济子系统呈先降后升态势，生态子系统呈上升趋势;应对能力和恢复力基本同步增长，3个子系统均呈上升趋势，目前处于相对高级水平。（2）变化幅度上，脆弱性方面，生态子系统变幅相对最大，经济子系统相对最高;应对能力方面，3个子系统均经历了由相对较弱到较强的过程，且阶段节点大致相同，其中社会子系统由最弱变为最强，生态系统变化由最强变至最弱。（3）恢复力方面，社会子系统增长最强劲，经济子系统具有波动性，生态子系统变幅最小。生态和经济子系统脆弱性尤应受到关注，应对能力应注意系统物质资本的积累，避免过多注重社会能力的创造，真正提高系统恢复力。 |
| [11] | . 立足反映恢复力属性特征的盆地模型理论,构建基于稳定性景观的恢复力评价体系。从脆弱性、应对能力两大层面以及社会、经济、生态三大子系统入手,建立旅游地社会—生态系统恢复力测度指标体系,运用集对分析法,测度千岛湖旅游地社会—生态系统恢复力,甄别影响恢复力的主要因子,揭示旅游地社会—生态系统恢复力因子影响机理及曲线规律。结果表明：① 1987-2012年间千岛湖旅游地社会—生态系统脆弱性指数由0.4576缓慢上升至0.5622,应对能力指数由0.0282快速上升至0.9725,恢复力指数由0.1276稳步上升至0.8669,恢复力应是脆弱性与应对能力相互作用的结果。②总脆弱性受生态子系统脆弱性影响最大,总应对能力受经济子系统应对能力影响最大,总恢复力受社会和经济子系统恢复力影响较大。总应对能力对恢复力起着决定性作用,其中社会和经济系统的应对能力作用更加突出。③恢复力因子影响曲线可分为线性递增和递减、非线性U型/倒U型递增和递减6种类型,不同阶段、不同因子对系统恢复力作用方式、性质、速率具有差异性,主要以非线性影响为主,且存在不确定性。 . 立足反映恢复力属性特征的盆地模型理论,构建基于稳定性景观的恢复力评价体系。从脆弱性、应对能力两大层面以及社会、经济、生态三大子系统入手,建立旅游地社会—生态系统恢复力测度指标体系,运用集对分析法,测度千岛湖旅游地社会—生态系统恢复力,甄别影响恢复力的主要因子,揭示旅游地社会—生态系统恢复力因子影响机理及曲线规律。结果表明：① 1987-2012年间千岛湖旅游地社会—生态系统脆弱性指数由0.4576缓慢上升至0.5622,应对能力指数由0.0282快速上升至0.9725,恢复力指数由0.1276稳步上升至0.8669,恢复力应是脆弱性与应对能力相互作用的结果。②总脆弱性受生态子系统脆弱性影响最大,总应对能力受经济子系统应对能力影响最大,总恢复力受社会和经济子系统恢复力影响较大。总应对能力对恢复力起着决定性作用,其中社会和经济系统的应对能力作用更加突出。③恢复力因子影响曲线可分为线性递增和递减、非线性U型/倒U型递增和递减6种类型,不同阶段、不同因子对系统恢复力作用方式、性质、速率具有差异性,主要以非线性影响为主,且存在不确定性。 |
| [12] | . This paper explores the resilience of vulnerable tourism sectors to disasters in a period of global change and interdependence. The coral reef tourism industry is highly vulnerable to natural disasters and economic and political shocks. The paper also explains why enterprise resilience is central to sustainable tourism management, for economic, socio-cultural and environmental reasons. It extends the concepts of ecological and social resilience to that of enterprise resilience. Using scenarios and interviews with key enterprise staff, the study contrasts the levels of resilience of formal and informal reef tourism enterprises, and the factors associated with the enterprise resilience in Phuket, Thailand, following the 2004 tsunami and the 2008 political crisis. Informal enterprises reported better financial condition in a crisis scenario and higher levels of social capital in the form of government, family and community support than formal enterprises. Formal and informal enterprises both enjoy high lifestyle benefits from reef tourism, which supports resilience. Most formal enterprises had part foreign ownership/management (61%); no informal enterprise had any foreign ownership or management. Management policies supporting reef tourism should consider local nuances and the importance of lifestyle benefits for both formal and informal enterprises, and take steps to enable enterprise flexibility and cost-cutting during crises. |
| [13] | . This article examines tourism business disaster planning in areas at risk from low-frequency/high-consequence natural disasters. It presents empirical findings from a tourism business survey in the Southern Alps of New Zealand, an area with high seismic risk that supports a tourism industry comprising many micro-sized, owner-operated businesses. The Alpine Fault is a 450km geological structure running the length of the Southern Alps, and is considered overdue for a M7.8-8.0 earthquake. A survey of tourism business operators revealed generally poor levels of perceived preparedness and actual planning for a future earthquake disaster, particularly amongst micro-sized businesses. The presence or absence of business resilience tools' was investigated, all of which are more common in businesses with higher incomes. The article draws on tourism disaster planning and business resilience literature to outline an alternative approach to disaster planning for small tourism-reliant communities. It describes community-based efforts to prepare in two remote Southern Alps townships, lending support to the concept of collective, community-led disaster planning. |
| [14] | . The objective of this paper is to provide a preliminary discussion of how to improve our conceptualization of social thresholds using (1) a more sociological analysis of social resilience, and (2) results from research carried out in collaboration with the Champagne and Aishihik First Nations of the Yukon Territory, Canada. Our sociological analysis of the concept of resilience begins with a review of the literature followed by placement of the concept in the domain of sociological theory to gain insight into its strengths and limitations. A new notion of social thresholds is proposed and case study research discussed to support the proposition. Our findings suggest that rather than view social thresholds as breakpoints between two regimes, as thresholds are typically conceived in the resilience literature, that they be viewed in terms of collectively recognized points that signify new experiences. Some examples of thresholds identified in our case study include power in decision making, level of healing from historical events, and a preference for small-scale development over large capital intensive projects. |
| [15] | . AbstractThis research analyzes individuals' perceived resilience to changing climatic conditions. Specifically, we suggest individual resilience is composed of an awareness of localized risks created because of climate change, a willingness to learn about, and plan for, the potential impacts of altered environmental conditions, and general appraisals of personal adaptive capacities. We hypothesize that resilience is influenced by the characteristics of individuals' social networks and also by their social-psychological dependence on local environments. Using data collected in three resource-associated communities within the southeastern United States, our analysis suggests bonding ties may limit individuals' willingness to seek new information about the potential impacts of climate change. Conversely, the data suggest the use of a diverse array of bridging ties is positively associated with information-seeking behavior. The data also support our hypothesis that individuals' social psychological dependencies on the local environment influences their perceived resilience to changing climatic conditions. By gaining a clearer understanding of how individuals' social networks and social-psychological dependencies affect their perceived ability to adapt to changing environmental conditions, decision makers can focus on policy solutions that increase adaptive capacities and build social resilience. |
| [16] | . This article explores the development of sociological constructs in community assessment components of large-scale ecosystem assessments. We compare the conceptual and operational development of the constructs of community capacity and community resiliency used in three community assessments in the western United States: the Forest Ecosystem Management Assessment Team, the Sierra Nevada Ecosystem Project, and the Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem Management Project. The policy mandates, research goals, and methodologies of the assessments are considered in order to better understand the evolution of these constructs. We compare the constructs and find them similar in concept but slightly different in application. We suggest further conceptual refinement of community capacity and resiliency by distinguishing foundational assets from mobilizing assets. We present several methodological and theoretical challenges that, if overcome, may increase the effectiveness and relevance of community capacity or community resiliency as constructs in social science research and social assessment projects. |
| [17] | . The burgeoning interest in social capital within the climate change community represents a welcome move towards a concern for the behavioural elements of adaptive action and capacity. In this paper the case is put forward for a critical engagement with social capital. There is need for an open debate on the conceptual and analytical traps and opportunities that social capital presents. The paper contrasts three schools of thought on social capital and uses a social capital lens to map out current and future areas for research on adaptation to climate change. It identifies opportunities for using social capital to research adaptive capacity and action within communities of place and communities of practice. |
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| [19] | . Robert J. Ursano, Carol S. Fullerton, and Artin Terhakopian Disasters and Health: Distress, Disorders, and Disaster Behaviors in Communities, Neighborhoods, and Nations DISASTERS ARE OF TWO MAJOR TYPES: NATURAL AND HUMAN-MADE. H um an-m ade disasters result from hum an error, such as technologi02 cal accidents, and intentional hum an acts, such as terrorism . Overall, hum an-m ade disasters cause m ore frequent and m ore persistent psychiatric symptoms and distress (for review see Norris et al., 2002). However, this distinction is difficult to make. The etiology and conse02 quences of natural disasters can be the result of hum an behaviors. For example, the damage caused by an earthquake can be intensified by poor construction. Similarly, hum ans may contribute to the damage and destruction caused by natural disasters through poor land manage02 m ent th at increase the probability of floods. Interpersonal violence social research Vol 75 : No 3 : Fall 2008 1015 betw een individuals or groups such as assault, war, and terrorism is in m any ways the m ost disturbing traum atic experience. A review of over 60,000 disaster victims found 67 percent of those exposed to mass violence were severely im paired com pared w ith 39 percent of those exposed to technological disasters and 34 percent of those exposed to natural disasters (Norris et al., 2002). THE NATURE OF DISASTERS AND THE DISASTER COMMUNITY Disasters overwhelm local resources and threaten the safety and func02 tioning of communities. W ith the advent of new technology, disasters are w itnessed in real tim e around the globe. Disaster com m unities can be overwhelmed by the media and people offering assistance. The norm al routine of the com m unity is altered not just by the disaster but by the influx of strangers, w hich affects norm al social supports, strain02 ing and disrupting com m unity functioning—the im portant elem ents in helping communities return to “norm al” functioning. Disaster impacts that includes threat to life, destruction of prop02 erty and society, as well as the stress events in the recovery environ02 m ent, are related to the degree of psychiatric m orbidity (Noji, 1997). Disruption of the com m unity and workplace increases distress, health risk behaviors, and risk of posttraum atic stress disorders (PTSD). In the im m ediate afterm ath o f a disaster or terrorist attack, individuals and communities may respond in adaptive, effective ways or they may m ake fear-based decisions, resulting in unhelpful behaviors. Knowledge of an individual’s and com m unity’s resilience and vulnerability before a disaster as well as understanding the specific com m unity’s psycho02 logical responses enables leaders and medical experts to talk to the public, to prom ote resilient healthy behaviors, sustain the social fabric of the community, and facilitate recovery (Ursano et al., 2003; Institute of Medicine, 2003). The adaptive capacities of individuals and groups w ithin a com m unity are variable and need to be understood before a crisis in order to target needs effectively after disaster. For example, com m unity embeddedness—the degree to which one belongs to and is 1016 social research connected in one’s neighborhood and com m unity—may be both a risk factor and a protective factor after com m unity level disasters (Sampson, 2003; Sampson et al., 1997). The economic im pacts of disasters are substantial. Loss of a job is a m ajor postevent predictor of negative psychiatric outcome (Galea et al., 2002; Nandi et al., 2004). These effects can be seen at the macro level—for example, in a dip in consum er confidence, w hich occurred during and after the sniper attacks in the W ashington, D.C. area in October 2002. Terrorism in particular targets the social capital of the nation—a nation’s cohesion, values, and ability to function. Economic impacts after terrorism may be substantial even w ith little destruction due to changed expectations and faith in leadership and community. C ounterterrorism and national continuity are crucially dependent upon our having effective interventions to sustain the psychological, behavioral, and social function of the nation and its citizens. Economic behaviors... |
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| [21] | . Assessing risk and evaluating crises -- be they financial, social, political or environmental -- have come increasingly to preoccupy the interests and concerns of analysts around the globe. In developed countries or what until recently was usually referred to as the First World, such considerations involve the reconceptualization of postindustrial societies as ones in which the rise of "manufactured uncertainties" have undermined the state's established safety systems and its conventional calculus of security. Yet to the billions of humanity who continue to live in less developed countries of the Third and Fourth Worlds and whose peoples still have faith in the benefits of development or have seen that promise come and go in a single lifetime, these finer considerations of risk seem less important. The threats posed by dumping industrial wastes, unsafe chemical production and the pollution of air and water, though real and graphically manifest on occasion, often pale in comparison to the daily risks posed by natural hazards and human-induced calamities that recent decades have only intensified. Rather than the "risk society" proposed by Ulrich Beck and others (1992), it is the need to understand the historical evolution of vulnerability and the degree to which different social classes are differently placed at risk that require more urgent consideration for most communities. |
| [22] | . The establishment of marine protected areas (MPA) has become the prevailing management strategy to stop the degradation of coastal and marine ecosystems; however, the effectiveness of MPAs is affected not only by ecological factors but also by social ones. Identifying and understanding socioeconomic conditions and the institutional context of fishing communities is essential to achieve success with MPAs. We propose a practical methodology for estimating the adaptive capacity (AC) of local communities to the establishment of MPAs. Adaptive capacity is defined as the ability of households to anticipate and respond to disturbances, natural or human induced, and to minimize, cope with, and recover from the consequences. We propose an index of adaptive capacity (IAC) of fishing communities that can be estimated at a local scale. This composite index comprises three dimensions, i.e., socioeconomic, social-ecological, and socio-political/institutional, which attempt to capture comprehensively the determinants of AC. Each dimension is constructed from three indicators, whose estimation is based on information collected from a household structured survey for which we suggested specific questions. We proposed the use of a Min function to highlight the weakest dimension of the IAC and guide decision makers with respect to elements that should be addressed to improve AC. A discussion about normalization and aggregation issues is also included. |
| [23] | . The purpose of this study is to develop indicators to measure community tourism development (CTD) within a sustainable framework. In order to develop such objective indicators, this study employed a modified Delphi technique. A panel of 38 academic researchers in tourism provided input into developing the indicators. After three rounds of discussion, the panel members reached consensus on the following set of 125 indicators: political (32), social (28), ecological (25), economic (24), technological (3), and cultural dimensions (13) for CTD. This set of sustainable tourism indicators can serve as a starting-point for devising a set of indicators at the local and regional level. Further study shall develop a set of sustainable indicators relying on communities distinctive characteristics and employing indicator experts from the social and physical sciences and from all stakeholder groups, including residents of the host community, industry experts, government planners, policy-makers and non-governmental organizations [United Nations (2001). Managing sustainable tourism development: ESCAP tourism review, No. 22. New York, NY: UN]. |
| [24] | . 地方感是人文主义地理学“人-地”关系研究中的重要内容.旅游是人们感知和认识环境的重要途 径和方式,旅游者地方感是旅游者与旅游地环境相互作用的结果.通过构建旅游者地方感模型,以九寨沟为案例研究发现,①九寨沟旅游者的地方感在自然风景维 度、社会人文维度、旅游功能维度和情感依恋维度等四个维度上存在一定差异：②九寨沟的自然风景与环境得到了旅游者较高的感知评价和普遍认同,是旅游者对九 寨沟产生情感依恋的主要因素：③旅游者对九寨沟的社会人文环境的感知评价相对较低,并影响到对九寨沟旅游环境与功能的感知评价;④旅游者赋予九寨沟更多的 是自然观光的意义和审美价值,九寨沟蕴涵的民俗文化体验的意义和历史价值并未能被旅游者所充分感知和认识,“藏族村寨”的地方特质没有得到旅游者的足够认 同：⑤不同类型旅游者之间的感知评价差异集中在九寨沟的藏族风情、地方文化、旅游服务、游览秩序和旅游氛围等方面.旅游者地方感研究为自然资源和旅游地规 划与管理提供了依据,具有一定的现实指导和借鉴意义. . 地方感是人文主义地理学“人-地”关系研究中的重要内容.旅游是人们感知和认识环境的重要途 径和方式,旅游者地方感是旅游者与旅游地环境相互作用的结果.通过构建旅游者地方感模型,以九寨沟为案例研究发现,①九寨沟旅游者的地方感在自然风景维 度、社会人文维度、旅游功能维度和情感依恋维度等四个维度上存在一定差异：②九寨沟的自然风景与环境得到了旅游者较高的感知评价和普遍认同,是旅游者对九 寨沟产生情感依恋的主要因素：③旅游者对九寨沟的社会人文环境的感知评价相对较低,并影响到对九寨沟旅游环境与功能的感知评价;④旅游者赋予九寨沟更多的 是自然观光的意义和审美价值,九寨沟蕴涵的民俗文化体验的意义和历史价值并未能被旅游者所充分感知和认识,“藏族村寨”的地方特质没有得到旅游者的足够认 同：⑤不同类型旅游者之间的感知评价差异集中在九寨沟的藏族风情、地方文化、旅游服务、游览秩序和旅游氛围等方面.旅游者地方感研究为自然资源和旅游地规 划与管理提供了依据,具有一定的现实指导和借鉴意义. |
| [25] | . 游憩者通过对游憩地环境的感知而赋予这些地方特定的意义与价值；通过游憩活动的参与，游憩者与游憩地之间逐渐形成各种形式的情感联结关系，并影响到游憩者对这些地方和休闲服务提供者的态度及其游憩行为。这是地方感的研究范畴,也是国外游憩地理学的研究热点。本文阐述了国外 . 游憩者通过对游憩地环境的感知而赋予这些地方特定的意义与价值；通过游憩活动的参与，游憩者与游憩地之间逐渐形成各种形式的情感联结关系，并影响到游憩者对这些地方和休闲服务提供者的态度及其游憩行为。这是地方感的研究范畴,也是国外游憩地理学的研究热点。本文阐述了国外 |
| [26] | . . |
| [27] | . In contrast to the dominant multi-attribute commodity view of outdoor recreation settings, wilderness users are described as having emotional and symbolic ties to the setting that are manifested as attachment to the site and the wilderness concept. Data from four wilderness areas show stronger place and wilderness attachment to be associated with previous visits, rural residence, a setting (as ... |
| [28] | . 现有研究表明,旅游目的地社区居民的旅游影响感知会影响他们对旅游的态度;但鲜有研究去分析旅游地社区居民的旅游发展期望对居民旅游态度的影响。本文以中国九寨沟和英国New Forest国家公园为例,运用SPSS统计分析技术,分析了两地居民旅游发展期望与旅游影响感知特点及其对居民旅游态度的影响路径及可能原因。研究结论表明:(1)居民的旅游获益感知直接影响居民的旅游支持度;(2)目的地居民的旅游发展期望直接影响着居民的旅游影响感知,尤其是旅游获益感知;并通过旅游影响感知的中介作用,间接影响居民的旅游态度;(3)自然旅游地居民的旅游发展期望都很积极正面,并存在明显的文化差异;尽管两地居民的旅游获益感知均显著逊于其旅游发展期望,但两地居民并没有因为期望落差而对当地旅游开发持否定态度。 . 现有研究表明,旅游目的地社区居民的旅游影响感知会影响他们对旅游的态度;但鲜有研究去分析旅游地社区居民的旅游发展期望对居民旅游态度的影响。本文以中国九寨沟和英国New Forest国家公园为例,运用SPSS统计分析技术,分析了两地居民旅游发展期望与旅游影响感知特点及其对居民旅游态度的影响路径及可能原因。研究结论表明:(1)居民的旅游获益感知直接影响居民的旅游支持度;(2)目的地居民的旅游发展期望直接影响着居民的旅游影响感知,尤其是旅游获益感知;并通过旅游影响感知的中介作用,间接影响居民的旅游态度;(3)自然旅游地居民的旅游发展期望都很积极正面,并存在明显的文化差异;尽管两地居民的旅游获益感知均显著逊于其旅游发展期望,但两地居民并没有因为期望落差而对当地旅游开发持否定态度。 |
| [29] | . . |
| [30] | . . |
| [31] | . |
| [32] | . The development and testing of an instrument designed to measure '"psy-chological sense of community" (PSC) is described. A discussion of the historical background of the PSC concept is presented and results of the use of the instrument in three U.S. and Israeli communities are described. Specific attention is given to the relationship of PSC and the variables of community satisfaction and competence as well as to applications of the PSC instrument. Since results suggest that certain manipulable variables may be associated with PSC, and that PSC itself may have the properties of a construct, suggestions for further research, and the potential im-portance of PSC for community development and maintenance are given. |
| [33] | . Knowledge of vulnerability provides the foundation for developing actions that minimize impacts and supports system views that are particularly desirable. We modified a well-established model to assess and describe the vulnerability of the two major industries dependent on the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) to extreme weather events. The modification entailed distinguishing between the properties that determine exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity for both the ecological and the social components of a natural resource system. We surveyed 145 commercial fishers and 62 tourism operators following a severe tropical cyclone and a major flooding event that extensively affected the region in 2011. Exposure of these industries included direct risk to life and infrastructure and indirect risk from loss of important ecosystem services. Our study found that many commercial fishers and marine-based tourism operators were sensitive to changes in the GBR condition and limited in their adaptive capacity. However, those with smaller businesses, higher levels of occupational identity, place attachment, formal networks, and strategic approaches also had higher levels of adaptive capacity. These results suggest that resource users with higher sensitivity to change are not necessarily the most vulnerable; sensitivity may be offset by adaptive capacity. That is, while exposure and sensitivity determine the potential impact of a climate-induced change, adaptive capacity may be a major influence on the impacts that eventuate. We empirically show that adaptive capacity is an obvious focus for climate adaptation planning. |
| [34] | . 61Caribbean marine-dependent livelihoods are highly vulnerable to environmental change.61Diversified livelihoods and behavioural changes developed following hurricane events.61Marine-livelihood adaptations indicate potential for resilience to future changes.61Reliance on the Caribbean tourism industry may undermine capacity for resilience. |
| [35] | |
| [36] | . As the impacts of climate-change on resource-dependent industries manifest, there is a commensurate effort to identify and implement strategies to reduce them. Yet, even when useful knowledge and tools exist, there can be poor adoption of adaptation strategies. We examine the reasons behind sub-optimal adoption of seasonal climate forecasts by graziers for managing climate variability. We surveyed 100 graziers in north-east Queensland, Australia and examined the influence of adaptive capacity, resource-dependency and forecast-perception on uptake. Technical perceptions were not important. Strategic skills, environmental awareness and social capital were. Results suggest that social factors (but not technical factors) are significant. These insights are important for adaptation planning and for maximising the resilience of communities and industries dependent on climate-sensitive resources. |
| [37] | . 实施可持续发展战略是中国旅游业发展的必然选择。除了包含经济的发展、环境的保护、社会的进步等内容外，可持续发展更需要一种发展理念和评判依据。社区参与旅游发展就是旅游可持续发展宏观系统中不可或缺的机制。本文试从这一角度出发，在提出社区参与的概念的基础上，探讨 . 实施可持续发展战略是中国旅游业发展的必然选择。除了包含经济的发展、环境的保护、社会的进步等内容外，可持续发展更需要一种发展理念和评判依据。社区参与旅游发展就是旅游可持续发展宏观系统中不可或缺的机制。本文试从这一角度出发，在提出社区参与的概念的基础上，探讨 |
| [38] | . 以安徽省天堂寨旅游区为案例地,运用深度访谈、制度文本分析、典 型个案分析,研究中国政治经济背景下山区旅游业发展初期阶段对社区居民的去权类型及其形成机制.结果表明:①山区旅游发展对社区居民在生产生活空间、自然 资源使用、信息获取、旅游获益与旅游参与五个方面产生了去权效果.②山区旅游发展对社区居民去权的形成机制是政府发展战略与制度设计、社区精英关系网络与 居民个人社会经济条件和社会支持综合作用的结果.本研究揭示多个社区利益群体相互联合对社区居民去权的过程与机制,政策建议是通过完善政府官员政绩考核方 式、加强行政监督、及时发布相关旅游发展信息、加强居民旅游参与的能力建设,使这种旅游发展政策发挥更佳效果. . 以安徽省天堂寨旅游区为案例地,运用深度访谈、制度文本分析、典 型个案分析,研究中国政治经济背景下山区旅游业发展初期阶段对社区居民的去权类型及其形成机制.结果表明:①山区旅游发展对社区居民在生产生活空间、自然 资源使用、信息获取、旅游获益与旅游参与五个方面产生了去权效果.②山区旅游发展对社区居民去权的形成机制是政府发展战略与制度设计、社区精英关系网络与 居民个人社会经济条件和社会支持综合作用的结果.本研究揭示多个社区利益群体相互联合对社区居民去权的过程与机制,政策建议是通过完善政府官员政绩考核方 式、加强行政监督、及时发布相关旅游发展信息、加强居民旅游参与的能力建设,使这种旅游发展政策发挥更佳效果. |
| [39] | . 增权是目的地获得可持续发展的重要前提。缺乏关于政治和权力关系的分析，仅将社区参与作为一个经济和技术过程而不是政治过程，是当前社区参与旅游发展在实践中不能取得真正进步的原因。本文对西方增权理论以及旅游研究中有关增权的研究成果进行了介绍和分析，认为旅游 . 增权是目的地获得可持续发展的重要前提。缺乏关于政治和权力关系的分析，仅将社区参与作为一个经济和技术过程而不是政治过程，是当前社区参与旅游发展在实践中不能取得真正进步的原因。本文对西方增权理论以及旅游研究中有关增权的研究成果进行了介绍和分析，认为旅游 |
| [40] | . 国内外的研究者目前都逐渐把社区及其居民作为旅游发展的主体，社区参与也因之成为旅游可持续发展的关键要素。本文在对社区参与研究脉络和走向进行分析的基础上，揭示出社区参与理论共识的达成经历了“从缺失到凸显”的过程。在对社区参与的关注方面，中国和西方的研究具有各 . 国内外的研究者目前都逐渐把社区及其居民作为旅游发展的主体，社区参与也因之成为旅游可持续发展的关键要素。本文在对社区参与研究脉络和走向进行分析的基础上，揭示出社区参与理论共识的达成经历了“从缺失到凸显”的过程。在对社区参与的关注方面，中国和西方的研究具有各 |
| [41] | . Change is a constant force, in nature and in society. Research suggests that resilience pertains to the ability of a system to sustain itself through change via adaptation and occasional transformation. This article is based on the premises that communities can develop resilience by actively building and engaging the capacity to thrive in an environment characterized by change, and that community resilience is an important indicator of social sustainability. Community resilience, as defined herein, is the existence, development, and engagement of community resources by community members to thrive in an environment characterized by change, uncertainty, unpredictability, and surprise. The U.S. Roundtable on Sustainable Forests commissioned a research project to develop a theoretically and empirically based definition of community resilience as well as an associated measurement instrument. In this article, the research is presented, the emergent definition and dimensions of community resilience are posited, and the Community Resilience Self Assessment is introduced. |
| [42] | . |
| [43] | . Abstract The following values have no corresponding Zotero field: ID - 45 |
| [44] | . ABSTRACT Community resiliency is a theoretical framework and social process that attempts to explain how communities address adversity. Generating information about this concept has largely been accomplished through qualitative research methods and the development of the Resiliency Scale, which was based upon previous qualitative research on the topic. A multimethod study was used to explore community resiliency in two rural communities and one urban neighborhood. In this article we specifically examine: "What are the merits of employing different research methods to explore community resiliency and health status?" Qualitative interviews, a household survey, and analysis of provincial health databases were all used. The understanding of community resiliency as identified from each of these three methods as well as a discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of each method is presented. |
| [45] | . 伴随着旅游业的急速增长，作为旅游业利益相关者中之弱势群体的社区，亟须予以不同层面的赋权以提高其参与能力。赋权是一个建立意识、增强能力和发展技能，通向更多参与、更加平等、更大影响的行动过程。本文通过对国内不同地域社区旅游目的地的追踪研究，在赋权理论的框架下 . 伴随着旅游业的急速增长，作为旅游业利益相关者中之弱势群体的社区，亟须予以不同层面的赋权以提高其参与能力。赋权是一个建立意识、增强能力和发展技能，通向更多参与、更加平等、更大影响的行动过程。本文通过对国内不同地域社区旅游目的地的追踪研究，在赋权理论的框架下 |
| [46] | |
| [47] | . |
| [48] | . . |
| [49] | . Abstract Abstract: Future changes in climate pose significant challenges for society, not the least of which is how best to adapt to observed and potential future impacts of these changes to which the world is already committed. Adaptation is a dynamic social process: the ability of societies to adapt is determined, in part, by the ability to act collectively. This article reviews emerging perspectives on collective action and social capital and argues that insights from these areas inform the nature of adaptive capacity and normative prescriptions of policies of adaptation. Specifically, social capital is increasingly understood within economics to have public and private elements, both of which are based on trust, reputation, and reciprocal action. The public-good aspects of particular forms of social capital are pertinent elements of adaptive capacity in interacting with natural capital and in relation to the performance of institutions that cope with the risks of changes in climate. Case studies are presented of present-day collective action for coping with extremes in weather in coastal areas in Southeast Asia and of community-based coastal management in the Caribbean. These cases demonstrate the importance of social capital framing both the public and private institutions of resource management that build resilience in the face of the risks of changes in climate. These cases illustrate, by analogy, the nature of adaptation processes and collective action in adapting to future changes in climate. |
| [50] | . |
| [51] | . . |
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| [53] | . How can we tell whether resource-dependent people are socially resilient to institutional change? This question is becoming increasingly important as demand for natural resources escalates, requiring resource managers to implement policies that are increasingly restrictive on resource users. Yet policy changes are frequently made without a good understanding of the likely social and economic consequences. Knowledge of the resilience of resource users to changes in resource-use policies can assist in the design and implementation of policies that minimize the impacts on people while maximizing the sustainability of ecosystem goods and services. Despite the appeal of resilience as a framework for sustaining human-environment relations, there has been a distinct lack of explicit application of the concept by natural-resource managers. In response, we build on general resilience theory to develop a conceptual model of social resilience for resource-dependent users. We test and refine the operational virtues of the model using the commercial fishing industry in North Queensland. Detailed surveys of individual resource users provide data on historic response, expected well-being, and capacity as a basis for assessing resilience. We find that the response of fishers to generic yet anticipated change events is determined by four key characteristics: (1) perception of risk associated with change; (2) perception of the ability to plan, learn, and reorganize; (3) perception of the ability to cope; and (4) level of interest in change. These responses represent relative measures of the likely response of resource users to prospective changes in resource policy that affect the way in which the resource is used or accessed. |
| [54] | . To enhance land managers? ability to address deeper landscape meanings and place-specific symbolic values in natural resource decision making, this study evaluated the psychometric properties of a place attachment measure designed to capture the extent of emotions and feelings people have for places. Building on previous measurement efforts, this study examined the validity and generalizability of place attachment across measurement items, places, and dimensions (place dependence and place identity) of attachment. Colorado State University students (n = 65) rated four forest-based recreation sites on two dimensions of place attachment. In addition, data from a sample of University of Illinois students (n = 380) and visitors to Shenandoah National Park (n = 2005) and Mt. Rogers National Recreation Area (n = 369) were analyzed and compared to the Colorado sample. Confirmatory factor analysis of these four data sets demonstrated that subjects distinguish between two dimensions of attachment and assign different levels of attachment to the different areas. Generalizability analysis of the Colorado data provided additional evidence for the two-dimensional structure and suggested that each attachment dimension can be reliably measured with as few as four questionnaire items. Convergent validity was supported through analyses of the relationships between the place attachment measures and both behavioral and psychological variables predicted to be related to place attachment. |
| [55] | . Social capital is the bond that links societies together and without which there is little opportunity for economic growth or individual well-being. Thus, this paper aims to contribute to the literature by providing an analytically reliable concept of social capital and a methodological tool for empirically testing a theoretical model of how social capital is built. Based upon a decomposition of the concept of social capital characterising three main dimensions (i.e., structural, relational and cognitive), for each specific group of individuals under study the structural equation model allows us: (1) to confirm the multidimensional construct of social capital; (2) to measure the interrelation between its different attributes and; (3) to set a solid basis for additional research on the effects of social capital. This approach has been empirically applied to Andalusian (southern Spain) farmers as case study. We believe this research to be a fundamental starting point for informing social capital policymakers and helping them implement the necessary tools to facilitate sustainable development processes at different moments in time as it takes into account the multidimensional, contextual and dynamic nature of the concept. |
| [56] | . 结构方程建模中题目打包法的优缺点包括：指标数据质量变好、模型拟合程度提高; 估计偏差不大, 可校正; 估计稳定, 但降低了敏感性与可证伪性。打包法的前提条件是单维、同质, 适合结构模型分析, 不适合测量模型分析。对于单维测验, 给出了一个打包流程。对于通常的多个子量表(多维结构)测验, 推荐在子量表内打包, 每个子量表打包成1个指标或者3个指标, 用于结构方程建模。 . 结构方程建模中题目打包法的优缺点包括：指标数据质量变好、模型拟合程度提高; 估计偏差不大, 可校正; 估计稳定, 但降低了敏感性与可证伪性。打包法的前提条件是单维、同质, 适合结构模型分析, 不适合测量模型分析。对于单维测验, 给出了一个打包流程。对于通常的多个子量表(多维结构)测验, 推荐在子量表内打包, 每个子量表打包成1个指标或者3个指标, 用于结构方程建模。 |
| [57] | . In this article, we provide guidance for substantive researchers on the use of structural equation modeling in practice for theory testing and development. We present a comprehensive, two-step modeling approach that employs a series of nested models and sequential chi-square difference tests. We discuss the comparative advantages of this approach over a one-step approach. Considerations in specification, assessment of fit, and respecification of measurement models using confirmatory factor analysis are reviewed. As background to the two-step approach, the distinction between exploratory and confirmatory analysis, the distinction between complementary approaches for theory testing versus predictive application, and some developments in estimation methods also are discussed. |
| [58] | . Innovative partnerships for conservation are required to stem the tide of continued ecosystem degradation. Nature-based tourism is one such partnership. Yet the natural attractions that nature-based tourism depends on are under increasing anthropogenic threat. Because of their dependence on international visitors, nature-based tourism enterprises are under additional pressure from socioeconomic and political crises in a globalized world. Recent research shows that lifestyle values, the motives that entice owners and staff of tourism enterprises to live and work in a chosen natural attraction, strengthen the resilience of enterprises to crises. This paper empirically explores the relationship between the lifestyle values of nature-based tourism enterprises, their resilience, and their support of and contribution to conservation of Australia's Great Barrier Reef. Semi-structured interviews with the owners and senior managers of 48 reef tourism enterprises showed that those that reported high lifestyle values had higher levels of conservation ethic and participated more extensively in conservation actions. The relationship between resilience and conservation ethic was not statistically significant. Bureaucratic, regulatory and cost constraints, and a lack of knowledge, limit enterprise participation in conservation. Conservation agencies can work to reduce some of these constraints to ensure that conservation benefits from nature-based tourism enterprises are maximized. |
| [59] | . Climate change is altering the productivity of natural resources with far-reaching implications for those who depend on them. Resource-dependent industries and communities need the capacity to adapt to a range of climate risks if they are to remain viable. In some instances, the scale and nature of the likely impacts means that transformations of function or structure will be required. Transformations represent a switch to a distinct new system where a different suite of factors become important in the design and implementation of response strategies. There is a critical gap in knowledge on understanding transformational capacity and its influences. On the basis of current knowledge on adaptive capacity we propose four foundations for measuring transformational capacity: (1)how risks and uncertainty are managed, (2)the extent of skills in planning, learning and reorganizing, (3)the level of financial and psychological flexibility to undertake change and (4)the willingness to undertake change. We test the influence of place attachment and occupational identity on transformational capacity using the Australian peanut industry, which is presently assessing significant structural change in response to predicted climatic changes. Survey data from 88% of peanut farmers in Queensland show a strong negative correlation between transformational capacity and both place attachment and occupational attachment, suggesting that whilst these factors may be important positive influences on the capacity to adapt to incremental change, they act as barriers to transformational change. 2012 IOP Publishing Ltd. |
| [60] | . This study integrated the theoretical perspective of social capital into community-based ecotourism (CBET). Two destinations were selected to test the conceptual model to see whether social capital improves cooperation between community residents and the coordination of CBET development, and whether its role is persuasive and encourages residents' pro-environmental behaviors. The sample consisted of 420 residents living in two typical ecotourism destinations in China. Findings from a two-stage structural equation model analysis show that economic benefits have a direct impact on residents' pro-environmental behaviors; and the cognitive, rather than structural social capital has a partially mediating effects on this relationship. These findings indicate that a high level of social capital, particularly the cognitive variant, is instrumental in encouraging residents' pro-environmental behaviors. |
| [61] | . The main objective of this study is to examine nature of community participation expected by various interest groups with special references to a local destination in Turkey. A conceptual framework was developed by examining typologies of community participation. Under the guidance of this conceptual framework, a field research was designed and applied in a case study approach. It was found that different interest groups expected different types of community participation to achieve their own aims that may conflict with each other. This study also showed that expected nature of community participation by interest groups varies from non-participation to one forms of the spontaneous participation. |
| [62] | . The statistical tests used in the analysis of structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error are examined. A drawback of the commonly applied chi square test, in addition to the known problems related to sample size and power, is that it may indicate an increasing correspondence between the hypothesized model and the observed data as both the measurement properties and the relationship between constructs decline. Further, and contrary to common assertion, the risk of making a Type II error can be substantial even when the sample size is large. Moreover, the present testing methods are unable to assess a model's explanatory power. To overcome these problems, the authors develop and apply a testing system based on measures of shared variance within the structural model, measurement model, and overall model. |
| [63] | . |
| [64] | . . |
| [65] | . . |
| [66] | . The Illness Attitudes Scale (IAS) assesses fears, beliefs and attitudes associated with hypochondriasis [Kellner, R. (1986). Somatization and hypochondriasis. New York: Praeger Publishers.]. Recent factor analytic investigations of the IAS in non-clinical samples have suggested a number of different factor solutions. In study 1, we used principal components analysis with both orthogonal and oblique rotation to better explore the structure of this measure. Using a random selection of 390 participants from a larger pool of 780, a five-factor solution was identified: (1) fear of illness, death, disease and pain, (2) effects of symptoms, (3) treatment experiences, (4) disease conviction and (5) health habits. In study 2, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of responses from the remaining 390 students evaluated: (a) a single-factor model, (b) Kellner's original nine-factor model, (c) a four-factor model proposed by Ferguson and Daniel [Ferguson, E. & Daniel, E. (1995). The Illness Attitudes Scale (IAS): a psychometric evaluation on a nonclinical population. Personality and Individual Differences, 18, 463-469.], (d) a different four-factor model proposed by Stewart and Watt [Stewart, S. H. & Watt, M. C. (1998). A psychometric investigation of the Illness Attitudes Scale (IAS) in a nonclinical young adult sample. Submitted for publication.] and (e) the five-factor model derived in study 1. Of these models, greatest support was obtained for our five-factor model. However, it was also clear that this model could be improved. Based on the results of the CFA, as well as previous research and theoretical considerations, we tested a revised model in which the health habits factor was deleted. Analysis of the revised model showed that it received the greatest support and could be conceptualized as either four distinct factors or as hierarchical in nature, with four lower-order factors loading on a single higher-order factor. Future directions for research as well as suggestions for scoring and using the IAS with nonclinical samples are discussed. |
