, 范香花, 黄卉洁Formation of tourists' environmentally friendly behavior in ecotourism destinations: A case from Mangshan National Nature Reserve
HUANGJingbo, FANXianghua, HUANGHuijie通讯作者:
收稿日期:2017-06-9
修回日期:2017-09-9
网络出版日期:2017-12-15
版权声明:2017《地理研究》编辑部《地理研究》编辑部
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1 引言
“生态旅游”概念自20世纪80年代正式提出以来,比其他主流旅游方式发展更为迅速[1],以每年5%的全球增长率成为旅游业中增长速度最快的旅游方式之一[2]。生态旅游不仅注重体验自然生态环境,亦具备教育性与可持续性（生态的、社会文化的、经济的）、利益分配与道德规范、环保责任及环保意识等突出特征[3]。依据已有研究成果来看,几乎所有生态旅游的界定都强调了它在促进环境保护与生态可持续发展、自然景观（能够招徕游客）保护等方面的贡献。生态旅游不仅以保护生态环境为前提,还有益于当地的经济发展[4]。因此,生态旅游常常被视为一种可以实现多方共赢的发展路径,旅游者可以获得愉悦的体验,旅游经营者可以获得丰厚的利润,景区管理委员会可筹集环境保护资金,当地居民获得经济收入。所以,有****将生态旅游描述为欠发达国家及地区的“天赐之物”[5]或“灵丹妙药”[6]。对于生态旅游目的地来讲,良好的自然环境是其生存和发展的基础,也是其成功招徕游客的法宝,同时,在提高旅游目的地竞争力方面也发挥着重要作用。对于旅游客源市场来讲,良好的自然环境是吸引旅游者移动的主要因素,特别是生态旅游者[7]。遗憾的是,虽然游客往往慕“自然环境”而来,但在旅游的过程中,他们多关注旅游活动及旅游体验本身,较少考虑自身旅游行为给旅游地自然环境造成的影响。尽管对于大多数生态旅游者来讲,他们可能会最小化对环境的负面影响,但其有意或无意的旅游行为仍然会给旅游目的地环境带来负面影响[8],如采集花草标本、打扰野生动物栖息、过度拥挤等。游客的非环境友好行为对目的地环境产生的负面影响,不仅会影响到目的地动植物的多样性及生态系统的稳定性,也会直接影响到旅游者的体验价值感知及满意度,进而影响到生态旅游地吸引力与竞争力,不利于目的地旅游业可持续发展[9]。
可喜的是,近年来,学术界、实业界及行政管理部门都已经认识到旅游目的地环境问题的严重性及游客在实现自然资源可持续利用与环境保护方面的重要性。政府及管理部门也通过各种手段,努力减少旅游业对生态环境造成的消极影响,如制定旅游规划与规则、严格的惩罚措施及游客行为守则等,但实施的效果如何却跟游客的环境行为有很大关系[10]。因此,针对旅游目的地的环境问题,具有自发环保行为的环境友好型游客受到广泛关注[11]。实际上,游客的环境友好行为可以通过有效的措施进行干预与引导。鉴于此,对于旅游目的地管理者来讲,为了最小化游客对旅游目的地生态环境造成的负面影响,避免旅游目的地自然环境退化及持续为游客提供高质量的旅游体验,如何实施有效措施引导游客的环境友好行为就变得十分重要。
明确人类行为的影响因素非常重要,因为如果我们想要改变人类的行为,那么首先需要搞清楚是什么决定或影响人类的行为?20世纪80年代以来,有关人们的环境行为影响因素方面,环境心理学家作出了重大贡献,他们不断提出和验证一些理论与模型来预测环境相关行为,并试图改变人们的某些环境行为。在旅游研究领域,有关旅游者环境友好行为的影响因素研究方面也已取得较多成果,研究的焦点集中在环境知识、环境态度、环境意识、环境承诺、环境责任、环境吸引力、环境关注及地方依恋等方面[12-16]。掌握哪些因素会影响、激发游客的环境友好行为,可以为生态旅游地游客环境友好行为的诱导提供理论支撑。
在此背景下,本文的研究目的在于通过构建结构方程模型的方法,实证分析旅游者环境友好行为形成过程中环境知识、感知价值、感知消费效力以及环境态度的作用,找到影响环境友好行为形成的关键因素。研究结果有助于生态旅游目的地管理者采用更科学的手段激发游客的环境友好行为,找到科学的游客环境保护行为提升途径,为生态旅游地环境保护工作有效开展提供理论依据,促进生态旅游地旅游业的健康可持续发展。
2 模型构建
2.1 环境知识
环境知识表现了个人或组织在多大程度上关心或关注生态问题[17],用来描述与环境问题及其可能的解决方案等相关的知识,被界定为个人识别一定数量的、与环境保护相关的符号、概念及行为模式的能力[18],是个人所拥有的有关环境、地球生态及人类行为对环境影响的事实性信息[19]。在早期的线性回归模型分析中,环境知识被界定为环境态度形成及环境行为表达的来源[20]。Huang等认为人们拥有的环境知识越多,保护环境责任感就越强,因此,可以通过对人们环境知识的管理达到环境管理的目的[17]。相关研究已经指出,环境知识与环境态度之间存在关联性[12]。根据环境知识的概念,人们所拥有的环境知识越多,对环境及环境相关问题的关注就越多,越容易表现出友好的环境行为[21]。Chen等验证了态度因素及社会人口统计学因素对环境友好行为的影响,分析结果表明城市居民环境知识存量的增加能够明显提高人们环境态度的积极性[22]。Barr对英国农户环境态度与环境行为的影响因素进行分析,发现农户环境态度与他们的环境知识存量有关,即环境知识存量越多,环境态度越积极[23]。Ahmad对马来西亚市民的环境知识与环境行为进行分析时发现人们的环境知识正向影响环境态度[24]。基于此,提出假设H1a：环境知识对环境态度有显著的正向影响。
生态旅游体验的感知价值受到认知性因素的影响,如生态旅游环境知识[25]。生态旅游者出游动机是基于对生态旅游环境的需求而产生,且由于其自身的环境知识引发了环境保护心理及游客对生态旅游体验的感知价值判断。所以,在旅游消费行为认知过程中,旅游者所拥有的环境知识会影响他们从生态旅游体验中获得的心理收益,进而影响对生态旅游体验的感知价值判断。一般来讲,旅游者掌握的环境知识越多,对生态旅游体验的感知价值越强。基于此,提出假设H1b：环境知识对感知价值有显著的正向影响。
感知消费效力是由人们的知识水平及直接和间接的经验决定的,随着人们知识水平及经验积累的变化而变化[26]。作为一个关键因素,人们对环境知识的掌握程度既能影响他们对环境问题的看法,又能影响他们对改变环境现状及解决环境问题的信心,最终影响他们对环境问题的感知消费效力。研究者还发现,相比之下,拥有较多环境知识的人更易于感知到他们的努力对于解决环境问题的贡献[27]。基于此,提出假设H1c：环境知识对感知消费效力有显著的正向影响。
2.2 感知价值
感知价值是一个具有主观色彩的概念,指消费者在购买产品或服务时,基于对“给予”和“获得”的感知而对产品效用的总体评价[28]。因此,感知价值涉及到消费者对收益（想要的结果与利益）与投入（金钱、时间及努力）之间交易的感知评价[29]。Bolton等指出,就消费者付出的成本而言,感知价值就是消费者对服务的期望与实际获得的服务之间的感知差距[30]。在旅游研究文献中,感知价值经常被界定为个人对旅游产品特性的评价,如服务质量、价格、情感及社会因素,这些因素决定了产品价值是否值得消费,并影响旅游者的游后满意度[31]。从感知价值的定义可以发现,感知价值是一个主观的、模糊的概念,而态度则是一种后天习得的、对某对象的喜欢或不喜欢的倾向[32]。态度是后天习得的,受到已有信息及先前经验的影响,故感知价值会对态度产生影响[33]。Ruiz-Molina等对消费者感知价值、态度及忠诚之间的关系进行实证分析,发现消费者感知价值对态度有显著的正向影响[34]。Williams等分析了植物园游客的环境知识与环境态度之间的关系,发现环境知识可以显著影响环境态度[35]。因此,提出假设H2a：感知价值对环境态度有显著的正向影响。
有关感知价值对环境友好行为影响的研究吸引了部分****的关注,并取得了一定的研究成果。Russell等使用互惠准则解释了国家公园游客旅游体验、感知价值及其环境保护行为之间的关系,认为就旅游所付出的成本而言,如果游客能够获得良好的体验,那么他们将会受到更多的激励去保护环境[36]。Chiu等对生态旅游者的环境友好行为进行实证分析,结果表明生态旅游者的环境感知价值越高,越倾向于表现出环境友好行为[3]。基于此,提出假设H2b：感知价值对环境友好行为有显著的正向影响。
2.3 感知消费效力
感知消费效力这个概念可以追溯到20世纪70年代,被描述为一种影响结果的能力,是消费者个体对自身行为是否有能力影响环境的一种主观判断[37]。Kinnear等首次对感知消费效力进行检验,用它测量人们对自身行为所产生的环境保护效果的信念[38]。根据Ellen等的研究,感知消费效力被定义为一种特定领域的信念,即个人努力可以影响问题解决的可能性大小[27]。感知消费效力在多大程度上是有效的,取决于个人如何评估自身行为对某问题的贡献水平。一般来讲,如果消费者认为自己的主张与消费行为能够在一定程度上改变环境恶化或生态失衡的问题,则感知消费效力就产生了[39]。感知消费效力最初是用来测量态度的一个要素[38]。随后,****们指出把态度和感知消费效力作为两个不同的变量进行建模的效果更好[27]。后来,大量实证研究发现感知消费效力与环境态度之间存在显著的正向相关关系[40]。当消费者感知到通过自身言行举止可以改变环境问题时,他们就更容易形成积极的环境态度;反之,如果人们认为通过自身的努力无法对环境现状产生影响,则会产生消极的环境态度。因此,提出假设H3a：感知消费效力对环境态度有显著的正向影响。
如果个体相信自身的环境友好行为有助于环境问题解决的话,那么这种信念会强烈影响个人实施环境友好行为意愿,进而影响环境友好行为。因此,在预测一般意义上的环境友好行为方面,感知消费效力是有效的。Roberts指出,感知消费效力是对个人影响环境资源问题能力的主观判断,在预测消费者生态环境行为方面的能力超过了其他人口学及心理学变量,是预测消费者生态环境行为最强大的单一因素[40]。实证研究结果也发现,感知消费效力与环境友好行为之间存在显著的正向相关关系[41]。因此,提出假设H3b：感知消费效力对环境友好行为有显著的正向影响。
2.4 环境态度
环境态度反映了一个人对环境相关的活动及问题的信念、情感与行为意向的集合[42],或通过评估对自然环境的感知或信念而获得的心理倾向,用支持或不支持来表达[32]。事实上,对环境态度进行研究的兴趣来自于环境态度对人们行为的潜在影响[43]。特别是在自然生态型旅游目的地,环境态度被认为是负责任旅游行为的关键决定性因素,吸引了领域内****们的研究兴趣[44]。环境态度可以帮助我们更好的理解那些能够影响环境友好行为的系列信念、兴趣及准则[3]。目前,****们提出了很多理论框架来解释环境态度和环境友好行为之间的关系,如理性行为理论、计划行为理论、价值—信念—规范理论等。这些理论认为环境态度是环境行为的重要变量之一,积极的环境态度可以促使人们表现出友好的环境行为。在已有相关研究成果中,大量研究结果证实环境态度和环境友好行为间存在显著的正相关关系[20]。Bradley等指出,影响个体环境行为最重要的因素就是环境态度[45]。近年来,越来越多的实证研究结果都证实了人们的环境态度对环境友好行为有显著的正向影响[46]。因此,提出假设H4：环境态度对环境友好行为有显著正向影响。
2.5 环境友好行为
****们使用不同的词语描述积极的环境行为,如环境友好行为、亲环境行为、有益环境行为、环境敏感行为、绿色消费行为、生态导向行为、生态友好行为、环境可持续行为及环境责任行为等[8],本文将积极的环境行为统称为环境友好行为。对环境友好行为的界定可以从它的影响和意向两个方面出发。Stern认为当从它的影响角度来界定的话,环境友好行为是一种可以积极改变生态系统的物质或能量或动力机制的行为。当从意向方面来界定的话,环境友好行为是一种持有从行动者观点来改变环境意向的行为[47]。从旅游角度来看,游客环境友好行为包含了保护自然环境、减少对当地环境的干涉、自愿地减少或放弃参观那些由于环境问题而需要恢复的区域、采取行动以减少对具体目的地带来的破坏。如果旅游者清楚地知道他们的哪些旅游行为可能给环境带来不利影响,同时,尽可能地改变自身旅游行为以减少对环境产生的不利影响,就说明游客表现出了环境友好行为。基于以上研究假设,提出本文的概念模型（图1）。
显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT图1概念模型
-->Fig. 1Conceptional model
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3 研究方法与数据来源
3.1 研究区概况
湖南莽山国家级自然保护区以蟒蛇出没,林海莽莽而得名。地处湘粤交界的南岭山脉中段,宜章县最南端,与广东接壤,距郴州市区130 km。地理坐标为112°43′19″E~113°0′10″E,24°52′0″N~25°23′12″N（图2）。年平均气温17.2 °C,总面积2万 hm2,森林覆盖率92.8%,活立木蓄量168万m3,有高等植物2700余种,脊椎动物300余种,其中国家保护的重点动植物50余种,还保存有6000 hm2的原始森林。保护区内森林覆盖率高达99%,因拥有世界湿润亚热带地区面积最大、保存最好的原生型常绿阔叶林和丰富的动植物资源而享有“地球同纬度带上的绿色明珠”和“动植物基因库”的美称。
显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT图2莽山国家级自然保护区区位图
-->Fig. 2Location of Mangshan National Nature Reserve
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莽山国家级自然保护区因其优美的自然景观与优良的生态环境,吸引了大批的生态观光游客前来游憩度假。特别是近年来,莽山国家级自然保护区旅游市场规模不断壮大,2015年接待国内外游客16余万人次,2016年接待国内外游客19余万人次。随着游客的大量涌入,由于部分游客的非环境友好行为,如随意采摘花朵、挖取竹笋,乱扔垃圾等,导致保护区内的生态环境遭到一定程度的破坏,植被多样性逐渐减少,莽山独有的蛇种——烙铁头的数量也日趋减少,濒临灭绝。因此,以莽山国家森林公园的游客为研究区,探索旅游者环境友好行为形成机制,对培育游客的环境友好行为、有效保护莽山国家级自然保护区的生态环境具有重要的现实意义与指导意义。
3.2 问卷构成
调查问卷由两部分构成,第一部分为被调查者的人口统计学等基本信息,第二部分为被调查者的环境知识、感知价值、感知消费效力、环境态度及环境友好行为测试量表。其中,环境知识测试量表参考Haron等[48],由7条观测变量构成;感知价值测试量表借鉴Sweeney等[49],包含4条观测变量;感知效力测试量表引用Han等[50],通过4条观测变量测量;环境态度测试量表采用Dunlap等[51]设计的新环境范式量表,包括人类对增长极限的看法、对生态平衡的看法、对人类与自然关系的看法三个方面的内容;环境友好行为测试量表借鉴Kerstetter等[52,53],共有7条观测变量。第二部分的测试量表均使用李克特五级量表进行测量。3.3 数据来源
调查问卷发放区域集中在莽山国家级自然保护区内的鬼子寨景区、崖子石景区、猛坑石景区及猴王寨景区四个核心景区,采用随机拦截式进行问卷发放。为了保证问卷回收的质量,问卷发放人员均为旅游管理专业大三本科生,在进行问卷发放之前,向他们讲解本次问卷调查的主要目的及调查要求,使其熟悉研究主题,掌握一定的问卷发放技巧。此外,问卷发放时间选在2015年7月18日到8月16日间的周末时间。共发放问卷500份,回收423份,其中有效问卷357份。对回收的有效调查问卷进行描述性统计分析,可以看出被调查者构成的大致情况：男女游客比例均衡,以26~35岁（28.85%）和36~45岁（20.17%）年龄段的游客为主,学历水平以大专或本科（43.40%）、高中或中专（30.79%）为主,职业以学生（12.99%）、专业技术人员（11.58%）、教师医师律师（10.17%）为主,家庭年收入水平一般,主要分布在2~5万（36.49%）。
3.4 分析方法
由于研究中涉及多个潜变量及假设关系的检验,一方面,传统的统计分析方法不能妥善处理这些潜变量,而结构方程模型则能同时处理潜变量及其指标;另一方面,在对研究中假设关系进行检验时,由于自变量与因变量均为潜变量,均存在测量误差,而传统的统计方法（如回归分析）不允许自变量有测量误差,结构方程模型则可以。因此,选取结构方程分析法,借助于SPSS 22.0和AMOS 21.0统计软件,构建结构方程模型。分析过程分两个步骤展开,首先进行测量模型分析,主要考察模型的拟合优度、各潜变量的聚合效度与区分效度,确定各观测变量与潜变量之间的关系,然后进行结构模型分析,检验研究假设,确定各潜变量之间的关系。4 结果分析
4.1 环境知识的基本维度
使用探索性因子分析对环境知识的8条观测变量进行分析,采用方差最大化（Varimax）旋转法对因子矩阵进行正交旋转。结果显示,KMO值为0.831,巴特利特球型检验显著性值为0,满足探索性因子分析的前提条件。保留特征根大于1的公因子,可提取2个公因子,累积方差贡献率达到了75.066%,因子分析效果较好。提取的两个公因子的克朗巴哈系数分别为0.862和0.871,均大于0.7,说明观测变量的稳定性和可靠性均良好。根据因子载荷分布情况,分别将公因子命名为可持续发展知识和环境保护知识。在后面的结构方程模型分析中,这两个公因子作为环境知识潜变量的两个观测变量进行分析。4.2 测量模型适配度
测量模型对潜变量的指标构成进行分析。合适的测量模型评估是进行结构模型评估的前提条件。将所有的潜变量都纳入到测量模型中,检验数据与潜变量的适配度。验证性因子分析表明,拟合优度值均达到了要求（χ2/df=1.336,RMSEA=0.031,CFI=0.954,AGFI=0.926,NFI=0.959,IFI=0.989,TLI=0.9687）。克朗巴哈系数值分别为0.696、0.890、0.747、0.941、0.933,达到了内部一致性要求值（≥0.6）。聚合效度的评判通过各观测变量的标准化载荷、T值及显著性水平及各潜变量的平均提取方差来判断。由表1中数据分析结果可知,各观测变量的标准化载荷都超过了临界值（≥0.50）,T值大于1.96（P<0.05）,平均提取方差（AVE）均大于0.5,充分表明各潜变量的聚合效度较好。Tab. 1
表1
表1测量模型分析结果
Tab. 1Outcomes of confirmatory factor analysis
| 潜变量 | 观测变量 | 标准化载荷 | T值 | 组合信度 | Alpha |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 环境知识 | 可持续发展知识 | 0.701 | 12.912 | 0.698 | 0.696 |
| 环境保护知识 | 0.762 | 13.978 | |||
| 感知价值 | 这次生态旅游质量还行 | 0.814 | 17.948 | 0.891 | 0.890 |
| 这次生态旅游活动物有所值 | 0.809 | 17.752 | |||
| 这次生态旅游活动让我感觉很好 | 0.832 | 18.520 | |||
| 这次旅游活动给别人留下了好印象 | 0.821 | 18.155 | |||
| 环境态度 | 对增长极限的看法 | 0.697 | 12.871 | 0.751 | 0.747 |
| 对生态平衡的看法 | 0.777 | 14.635 | |||
| 对人与自然关系的看法 | 0.648 | 12.006 | |||
| 感知消费效力 | 一个人的行为对环境保护起不了很大的作用 | 0.920 | 22.469 | 0.939 | 0.939 |
| 若别人都不保护环境,那我的环境保护行为也没用 | 0.882 | 20.791 | |||
| 在旅游时,我会考虑自己的行为对环境及其他游客造成的影响 | 0.923 | 22.589 | |||
| 若每个游客都保护环境的话,那我们都能给环境带来积极的影响 | 0.833 | 18.939 | |||
| 环境友好行为 | 我会遵守莽山景区的游客行为规范 | 0.795 | 17.721 | 0.936 | 0.936 |
| 我会尽力保持莽山的环境质量 | 0.821 | 18.627 | |||
| 如果发现有环境污染和破坏行为我会向管理处报告 | 0.837 | 19.192 | |||
| 我会在莽山景区内进行消费 | 0.841 | 19.347 | |||
| 我帮助其他游客学习生态旅游知识 | 0.828 | 18.879 | |||
| 我在景区将垃圾进行分类 | 0.827 | 18.816 | |||
| 在旅游过程中,我尽量避免打扰这里的动植物 | 0.805 | 18.100 |
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经过计算,得到各潜变量的组合信度与平均提取方差,由表1和表2中可以看到,所有潜变量的组合信度均大于0.7的临界值,平均提取方差均大于0.5的临界值。为了检验区分效度,将各潜变量之间的相关系数平方与各潜变量的平均提取方差值进行比较。根据表2中的分析结果,各潜变量之间的相关系数平方均小于各潜变量的平均提取方差,说明各潜变量之间的区分效度较好。
Tab. 2
表2
表2相关系数平方及平均提取方差
Tab. 2Squared correlations coefficients and average variance extracted
| 环境知识 | 感知价值 | 环境态度 | 感知消费效力 | 环境友好行为 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 环境知识 | 0.536 | ||||
| 感知价值 | 0.305 | 0.671 | |||
| 环境态度 | 0.482 | 0.275 | 0.503 | ||
| 感知消费效力 | 0.214 | 0.125 | 0.228 | 0.793 | |
| 环境友好行为 | 0.314 | 0.256 | 0.225 | 0.174 | 0.676 |
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4.3 结构模型与假设检验
构建环境知识、感知价值、环境态度、感知消费效力及环境友好行为关系的初始模型。采用极大似然法估计模型各参数,得到χ2/df值为2.282,大于1小于3;RMSEA的值为0.060;其他拟合指数除AGFI（0.886）小于0.9外,GFI（0.913）,CFI（0.958）,NFI（0.928）,IFI（0.958）,TLI（0.950）均大于0.9,说明初始模型与数据拟合程度较好,模型在可接受的范围内但还需要进一步修正。根据初始模型的检验结果、相关理论及修正指标对初始模型进行修正和验证。使用修正指数（Modification Index）对模型进行修正,每次修改一个参数,从最大值开始。在最终的修正模型中,χ2/df值为1.796,介于1~2之间;RMSEA值为0.047;其他拟合指数AGFI（0.911）,GFI（0.934）,CFI（0.975）,NFI（0.945）,IFI（0.975）,TLI（0.969）均大于0.9,说明最终模型与数据的整体拟合效度较好。
假设检验结果显示,模型中的所有假设关系均成立（表3）。环境知识对感知价值、感知消费效力及环境态度有显著的正向影响,假设H1a、H1b、H1c成立;感知价值对环境态度、环境友好行为有显著的正向影响,假设H2a、H2b成立;感知消费效力对环境态度、环境友好行为有显著的正向影响,假设H3a、H3b成立;环境态度对环境友好行为有显著的正向影响,假设H4成立。
Tab. 3
表3
表3修正模型假设检验结果
Tab. 3Results of hypotheses testing of modified model
| 假设 | 潜变量之间关系 | 路径名称 | 标准化路径系数 | T值 | 标准误 | 假设检验结果 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| H1a | 环境知识→感知价值 | γ11 | 0.479 | 8.155*** | 0.059 | 成立 |
| H1b | 环境知识→环境态度 | γ12 | 0.484 | 6.991*** | 0.069 | 成立 |
| H1c | 环境知识→感知消费效力 | γ13 | 0.436 | 7.395*** | 0.059 | 成立 |
| H2a | 感知价值→环境态度 | γ21 | 0.164 | 2.764* | 0.059 | 成立 |
| H2b | 感知价值→环境友好行为 | γ22 | 0.258 | 3.942*** | 0.065 | 成立 |
| H3a | 感知消费效力→环境态度 | γ31 | 0.133 | 2.595* | 0.051 | 成立 |
| H3b | 感知消费效力→环境友好行为 | γ32 | 0.158 | 2.843** | 0.065 | 成立 |
| H4 | 环境态度→环境友好行为 | γ4 | 0.370 | 3.653*** | 0.101 | 成立 |
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在变量解释力方面,环境知识可以解释感知价值潜变量39.3%的变异量,解释感知消费效力30.3%的变异量;环境知识、感知价值及感知消费效力三个外变量可以联合解释环境态度76.9%的变异量;环境知识、感知价值、环境态度及感知消费效力四个解释变量可以联合解释环境友好行为46.4%的变异量。整体来看,概念模型的解释力较强。
在变量间的总影响效果方面,对环境友好行为的总影响效果最大的是环境知识,标准化总影响效应系数为0.576,其次是环境态度,标准化总影响效应系数为0.365,然后是感知价值,标准化总影响效应系数为0.331,对环境友好行为的总影响效果最小的是感知消费效力,标准化总影响效应系数为0.224。
5 结论与讨论
（1）在环境友好行为形成过程中,环境知识的作用最为重要。数据分析结果显示,在环境友好行为形成的四个解释变量中,环境知识对环境友好行为的总效应最为显著,标准化总影响系数达到了0.576,其次是环境态度（0.365）,然后是感知价值（0.331）,对环境友好行为的总影响效果最小的是感知消费效力（0.224）,这充分说明了环境知识在游客环境友好行为形成过程中的重要作用。在旅游体验过程中,旅游者拥有的环境知识越多,对环境问题及产生环境问题的原因越清楚,对环境问题现状的严重性以及其可能对后代所造成的危害性越了解,其环境危机意识就越强,就越倾向于表现出环境友好行为。相反,如果旅游者没有适量的环境知识或拥有过多的自我感知知识可能会促使他们表现出不利于环境保护的旅游行为。（2）环境知识是感知价值、感知消费效力及环境态度的重要前因变量。从数据分析结果来看,环境知识对感知价值（r11=0.479,P<0.001）、环境态度（r12=0.436,P<0.001）及感知消费效力（r13=0.484,P<0.001）的影响路径系数均在0.4以上。表明旅游者的生态环境知识水平越高,他们对生态旅游的感知价值就越高,对生态环境的态度也越积极,感知消费效力也越高。换句话说,游客所拥有的生态环境知识越多,就越倾向于享受良好的生态旅游环境,从而在最大程度上感受生态旅游带来的乐趣。同时,拥有的生态环境知识越多,对自身保护环境能力就越自信,越相信自己的环境友好行为能够对生态环境产生积极的影响。因此,对于莽山国家级自然保护区管理者而言,应在保护区内设置适量的生态环境相关的解说标牌,并提供专业人员向游客讲解莽山独特的环境资源及生态价值,提高游客的环境保护知识储量。
（3）环境态度是环境友好行为重要的直接预测指标。在环境友好行为的三个直接前因变量中,环境态度对环境友好行为的影响路径系数（r4=0.370,P<0.001）最大,其次是感知价值（r22=0.258,P<0.001）,最小的是感知消费效力（r32=0.158,P<0.001）。积极的环境态度可以激发游客的环境友好行为,即当游客对环境问题持有积极的认知与看法时,可促使游客以更加包容的心态面对环境问题,希望生态环境能够得到更加温柔的对待,从而表现出更加友好的环境行为。可见,积极的环境态度对环境友好行为的形成来讲,意义重大。同时,当游客从生态旅游活动体验中获得愉悦或感知到生态旅游的价值时,他们对于环境的关心和敏感性就会提升,在旅游过程中也会表现出更加负责任的环境行为,最小化对生态环境的破坏,与生态环境和谐相处。
（4）感知消费效力对环境友好行为有显著的影响效应。感知消费效力通过两条路径对环境友好行为产生影响,其一是是对环境友好行为产生直接影响,其二以环境态度为中介,对环境友好行为产生间接影响。路径分析结果表明,虽然感知消费效力对环境友好行为的两条影响路径相对于模型中其他潜变量对环境友好行为的影响效果来讲,影响系数相对较小,分别为0.133（P<0.01）、0.158（P<0.005）,但也通过了显著性检验。这表明在游客环境友好行为形成模型中,感知消费效力对环境友好行为存在一定的影响力。作为一种问题背景下的自我评估,感知消费效力越高,游客对自己行为结果的信念就越强,其环境友好行为就越容易被激发出来。
本研究存在一些局限。首先,没有对游客类型进行细分。由于生态旅游地的游客群体存在细分类型,而不同细分类型游客的环境友好行为形成机制可能不同。其次,数据收集过程中使用了自陈法进行问卷调查。由于自陈法本身会产生一定的社会期望偏差和回忆偏差,这可能会在一定程度上影响到数据的真实性。
The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
参考文献 原文顺序
文献年度倒序
文中引用次数倒序
被引期刊影响因子
| [1] | The purpose of the current inquiry was to develop a typology of nature tourists based on trip activities. Data were collected by means of a questionnaire at two nature-based attractions located in Northern Norway. The results indicated that the trip activity segmentation criterion enabled the classification of nature-based tourists into three clusters: “culture and pleasure activity oriented”, “nature activity oriented”, and “low activity oriented”. The main finding was that while other trip motivations distinguished the “nature activity oriented” segment from the other two in the current study, “nature” as a trip motivation, surprisingly, did not. Additionally, there were only minor significant differences between the clusters in terms of demographic and trip features. Theoretical and practical implications of the study are also discussed. |
| [2] | This study proposed a quantitative method for evaluating ecotourism experiences reported online by U.S. travelers to Costa Rica. The user-generated content (UGC) used in this study was 373 reviews extracted from TripAdvisor 03. By applying the content analysis technique, 26 attributes that influence ecotourists’ satisfaction with their ecolodge stays were identified and further aggregated into seven categories: ecolodge settings, room, nature, service, food, location, and value for money. A two-step non-parametric statistical procedure was developed to quantitatively support the classification of attributes into satisfiers, dissatisfiers, criticals, and neutrals, the typology first proposed by Cadotte and Turgeon [(1988). Dissatisfiers and satisfiers: suggestions from consumer complaints and compliments. Journal of Consumer Satisfaction, Dissatisfaction and Complaining Behavior, 1(1), 74–79]. The proposed procedure is considered an original contribution of the article to the literature. The authors hope that the results from this study can be useful to ecolodge managers to evaluate performance in critical areas and develop strategies to maximize customer satisfaction through better utilization of limited resources. |
| [3] | This study explores the environmentally responsible behavior of tourists engaged in ecotourism. It proposes a behavioral model in which perceived value, satisfaction and activity involvement with respect to the eco-travel experience shape the tourist's environmentally responsible behavior. Unlike other studies that view environmentally responsible behavior as a generic trait, this study explores whether the level of environmentally responsible behavior can actually change as a result of the eco-travel experience. A total of 328 valid questionnaires were obtained and analyzed using partial least squares. The results show that perceived value, satisfaction and activity involvement can promote environmentally responsible behavior of tourists. While perceived value directly affects environmentally responsible behavior, satisfaction and involvement play the roles of partial mediators in the behavioral model. Thus, enhancing tourist's value perception about the eco-travel activity is the first in a sequence of steps that would strengthen environmentally responsible behavior via increasing the ecotourist's activity involvement and satisfaction levels. Finally, the implications for the key stakeholders in the ecotourism industry are discussed. |
| [4] | . 通过构建禁止开发区域生态旅游发展协调性评价指标体系及评价模型,基于协调生态旅游利益相关者关系的目的,采用层次分析(AHP)法定量分析了目前丹霞山禁止开发区域生态旅游综合协调性及利益相关者各自评价指标的协调性水平。结果显示:①丹霞山生态旅游各利益相关者之间关系呈不协调的发展状况;②各利益相关者,尤其是旅游企业和地方政府自身评价指标发展水平不均衡;③各利益相关者之间缺乏有效的横向或斜向沟通与协调,特别是宏观和中观层的利益主体与微观操作层各利益主体之间的协调性较差。为此,从主体关系协调和空间关系协调的角度,分别提出了丹霞山禁止开发区域生态旅游协调发展的各利益相关者主体关系协调的全通道式沟通网络机制和空间关系协调发展机制。丹霞山禁止开发区域生态旅游协调性评价指标体系、评价结果和实现机制有利于为其他禁止开发区域生态旅游的协调发展提供理论借鉴和实践依据,并有利于进一步扩展利益相关者理论的应用价值。 通过构建禁止开发区域生态旅游发展协调性评价指标体系及评价模型,基于协调生态旅游利益相关者关系的目的,采用层次分析(AHP)法定量分析了目前丹霞山禁止开发区域生态旅游综合协调性及利益相关者各自评价指标的协调性水平。结果显示:①丹霞山生态旅游各利益相关者之间关系呈不协调的发展状况;②各利益相关者,尤其是旅游企业和地方政府自身评价指标发展水平不均衡;③各利益相关者之间缺乏有效的横向或斜向沟通与协调,特别是宏观和中观层的利益主体与微观操作层各利益主体之间的协调性较差。为此,从主体关系协调和空间关系协调的角度,分别提出了丹霞山禁止开发区域生态旅游协调发展的各利益相关者主体关系协调的全通道式沟通网络机制和空间关系协调发展机制。丹霞山禁止开发区域生态旅游协调性评价指标体系、评价结果和实现机制有利于为其他禁止开发区域生态旅游的协调发展提供理论借鉴和实践依据,并有利于进一步扩展利益相关者理论的应用价值。 |
| [5] | This study identified threats against biodiversity and conservation in Kenya, and their prevalence across protected areas. The susceptibility of protected areas to the threat factors was also assessed. Ten threat factors were identified from information obtained through interviews with protected area officers. The most prevalent threat factors were the bush meat trade, poaching, prevalence of human ildlife conflicts, human population density and encroachment, and loss of migration corridors and dispersal areas. Most of the protected areas were susceptible to more than half of the threat factors. All marine protected areas, a majority of forested and protected areas popular with tourists were highly susceptible to most of the threat factors. The findings suggest that biodiversity and most of the protected areas in Kenya are currently faced with various threats. Forest ecosystems, marine protected areas and wetlands need urgent and focused conservation strategies to safeguard them and their biodiversity. Tourism is, however, not a major primary threat; paradoxically some of the other threats identified may be a threat to Kenya's tourism industry. |
| [6] | Does ecotourism contribute towards conservation of threatened species and habitats or is it just a marketing ploy of the tourism industry? Using 251 case studies on ecotourism from the literature, I looked at the distribution of case studies over continents, habitats and flagship species types and what factors influenced whether an ecotourism regime was perceived as ecologically sustainable by authors. Over 50% of ecotourism case studies were reported from Africa and Central America. The overall distribution of ecotourism case studies did not reflect vertebrate endemism, nor overall tourism distribution in terms of tourist numbers and receipts. There were significant differences between continents and habitats with regard to the proportion of sustainable case studies: ecotourism is perceived to be less sustainable in South America and Asia, and in island and mountain habitats. The type of flagship species also influenced whether ecotourism was classified as sustainable or not: ecotourism with no flagship species was rarely classified as sustainable while charismatic bird and mammal species were associated with a higher probability of sustainability. In a multivariate analysis, flagship species type and local community involvement were important predictors of sustainability in ecotourism. Detailed a priori planning, local involvement and control measures were perceived by authors of case studies to increase the success of ecotourism in conservation. They also perceived that ecotourism can only be an effective conservation tool under certain conditions. If these are met, the evidence indicates that ecotourism can make a contribution to conservation. |
| [7] | . |
| [8] | . |
| [9] | This research focuses on local residents' self-reported pro-environmental behaviors in the Great Jiuzhai Tourism Area, China. The purpose of this study is to investigate whether residents' awareness of disaster's consequences, values and place attachment affect their pro-environmental behaviors based on value-belief-norm theory and theory of place attachment. Confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling were employed to confirm the fitness of the collected data for the model. This research concludes that residents' awareness of disaster's consequences, values and place attachment impact their pro-environmental behaviors positively. It reveals that altruistic values are a more powerful predictor of pro-environmental behaviors compared with egoistic values. Place attachment has a stronger impact on pro-environmental behaviors than the awareness of disaster's consequences and values. Several practical implications were derived from the research findings, which contributes to the policy of tourism management in general and environment management in particular outside the field of tourism sites. |
| [10] | . 基于国内外相关理论与实证研究，本文以九寨沟为案例地，构建结构方程模型探讨自然遗产地游客环境态度与环境行为倾向之间的影响机制。通过探索性因子分析发现游客的环境态度可以进一步细分为4个维度：即环境情感、环境责任、环境知识和环境道德。通过验证性因子分析和结构方程 基于国内外相关理论与实证研究，本文以九寨沟为案例地，构建结构方程模型探讨自然遗产地游客环境态度与环境行为倾向之间的影响机制。通过探索性因子分析发现游客的环境态度可以进一步细分为4个维度：即环境情感、环境责任、环境知识和环境道德。通过验证性因子分析和结构方程 |
| [11] | . <p>基于旅游者环境友好行为的"利他主义"和"集体行动"属性，文章探讨了关系社会资本、集体社会资本、广义社会资本与旅游者环境友好行为意愿之间的理论关系，并以杭州西溪湿地为例，依据371位游客的抽样调查数据，实证检验了三个层面社会资本的核心要素（情感连带、群体规范、人际信任）对旅游者两层次环境友好行为意愿的影响。研究结果显示：（1）情感连带、群体规范对旅游者环境维护行为意愿、环境促进行为意愿均具有显著的正向影响；（2）人际信任对环境维护行为意愿具有显著的正向影响，对环境促进行为意愿的影响则不显著；（3）不同层面社会资本对环境友好行为意愿的影响强度具有差异性，集体社会资本下的群体规范对环境维护行为意愿的影响最强，而关系社会资本下的情感连带对环境促进行为意愿的影响最强。</p> <p>基于旅游者环境友好行为的"利他主义"和"集体行动"属性，文章探讨了关系社会资本、集体社会资本、广义社会资本与旅游者环境友好行为意愿之间的理论关系，并以杭州西溪湿地为例，依据371位游客的抽样调查数据，实证检验了三个层面社会资本的核心要素（情感连带、群体规范、人际信任）对旅游者两层次环境友好行为意愿的影响。研究结果显示：（1）情感连带、群体规范对旅游者环境维护行为意愿、环境促进行为意愿均具有显著的正向影响；（2）人际信任对环境维护行为意愿具有显著的正向影响，对环境促进行为意愿的影响则不显著；（3）不同层面社会资本对环境友好行为意愿的影响强度具有差异性，集体社会资本下的群体规范对环境维护行为意愿的影响最强，而关系社会资本下的情感连带对环境促进行为意愿的影响最强。</p> |
| [12] | |
| [13] | The environmental sustainability of the local tourism industry is increasingly a concern. Authors have proposed a demand-driven approach to sustainable destination management as complementary to traditional supply-side interventions. However, little empirical evidence supports the feasibility of such a demand-driven approach. This study contributes to this gap by investigating whether individuals who feel morally obliged to behave in an environmentally friendly manner represent useful target segments for destination management aiming to improve the ecological sustainability of the local tourism industry. Results indicate that distinctly different moral obligation segments exist that differ in pro-environmental behavior and attitudes. These segments are associated with distinctly different vacation preferences and can consequently be used by destination management for target marketing. Gaps between people's pro-environmental behavior at home and at the destination systematically differ across segments, leading to the conclusion that different combinations of demand and supply-side measures may be suitable to reduce the environmental footprint of different segments. |
| [14] | |
| [15] | The present study is aimed at investigating whether eco-tourists are more ecologically oriented than nature tourists and city tourists. In questionnaire surveys, in line with the hypotheses, the ecotourists expressed more general environmental beliefs than the nature tourists, who, in turn, had more pro-environmental beliefs than the city tourists. Similar results were found in the attitudes th... |
| [16] | Place attachment is a multidimensional construct comprising place dependence, place affect, place identity, and place social bonding. Yet, studies investigating the relationships between place attachment, place satisfaction, and pro-environmental behaviour have not investigated its pluralistic nature. Using data from 452 visitors to the Dandenong Ranges National Park, Australia, this study investigates these four dimensions of place attachment and their relationships with place satisfaction and pro-environmental behavioural intentions. Findings suggest that the four place attachment constructs are significantly associated with place satisfaction. Results suggest that it is necessary to consider pro-environmental behavioural intentions as a two-factor structure construct, comprising low and high effort pro-environmental behaviour. Place satisfaction is associated with low effort pro-environmental behavioural intentions. Place affect is significantly associated with both types of environmental behavioural intentions. Place identity is not associated with either type of environmental behavioural intentions. A significant association is also noted between low effort and high effort pro-environmental behavioural intentions. Practical applications of the study include marketing aimed at encouraging repeat visitation, with sophisticated message development and delivery building emotional attachment, a sense of belonging, and enhanced personal meaning. Heritage interpretation could use affect and emotion to enhance visitor satisfaction and experience, coupled with an outcomes-focused communication plan. |
| [17] | Owing to the green revolution, environmental problems have now become some of the most important issues worldwide. Environmental knowledge management, which combines the strengths of environmental management and knowledge management, will become a popular tool for businesses in the near future. In this paper, through interviews of staff at different levels and in different departments of the business, i. e. managers and engineers and using the environmental knowledge circulation process, the authors evaluate the success of environmental knowledge management when applied to China Steel Corporation in Taiwan. From the case study, the authors found that China Steel Corporation has applied the environmental knowledge circulation process for over thirty years. The company continually improves its environmental and financial performance through environmental knowledge creation, environmental knowledge accumulation, environmental knowledge sharing, environmental knowledge utilization and environmental knowledge internalization. Water pollution and air emissions have reduced year on year and total energy consumption has reduced by 20 % from 1979 to 2006. On the other hand, China Steel Corporation also makes a profit and reduces cost through energy sold, by-products and recycling. Continuous improvement in environmental knowledge management has rendered China Steel Corporation in the most profitable steel company in Taiwan and the world鈥檚 twenty fifth largest steel producing company in 2006. |
| [18] | Concerns related to the environment are evident in the increasingly ecologically conscious marketplace. Using various statistical analyses, investigats the demographic, psychological and behavioral profiles of consumers who are willing to pay more for environmentally friendly products. Finds that this segment of consumers were more likely to be females, married and with at least one child living at home. They reported that today ecological problems are severe, that corporations do not act responsibly toward the environment and that behaving in an ecologically favorable fashion is important and not inconvenient. They place a high importance on security and warm relationships with others, and they often consider ecological issues when making a purchase. Managerial implications for green marketers and suggestions for future research are discussed. |
| [19] | Examines the general level of public environmental knowledge using a statewide survey of Kentucky residents. Analyzes the sociodemographic characteristics correlated with such knowledge. Results indicated that public environmental knowledge remains low, and the major correlates of knowledge are education, income, and gender. (TW) |
| [20] | |
| [21] | The actions performed by individuals, as consumers and citizens, have aggregate negative consequences for the environment. The question asked in this paper is to what extent it is reasonable to hold individuals and institutions responsible for environmental problems. A distinction is made between backward-looking and forward-looking responsibility. Previously, individuals were not seen as being responsible for environmental problems, but an idea that is now sometimes implicitly or explicitly embraced in the public debate on environmental problems is that individuals are appropriate targets for blame when they perform actions that are harmful to the environment. This idea is criticized in this paper. It is argued that instead of blaming individuals for performing actions that are not environmentally friendly we should ascribe forward-looking responsibility to individuals, a notion that focuses more on capacity and resources than causation and blameworthiness. Furthermore, it is important to emphasize that a great share of forward-looking responsibility should also be ascribed to institutional agents, primarily governments and corporations. The urge to ascribe forward-looking responsibility to institutional agents is motivated by the efficiency aim of responsibility distributions. Simply put, if responsibility is ascribed to governments and corporations there is a better chance of creating a society in which the opportunities to act in an environmentally friendly way increase. |
| [22] | China currently faces severe environmental challenges, and information regarding the predictors of pro-environmental behaviour in China is needed to manage them. This study addresses this need by modelling the sociodemographic and attitudinal factors predicting pro-environmental behaviour in urban China. Pro-environmental behaviour was modelled as a function of environmental attitude (measured using the new environmental paradigm) and various sociodemographic characteristics. Respondents who were employed, holding leadership positions, living in larger cities and single were more likely to participate in pro-environmental behaviour. These results accord with previous studies suggesting being female, younger, highly educated and having environmentally oriented attitudes increased the odds of participating in pro-environmental behaviour. The rapid urbanization and economic development in China may significantly impact pro-environmental behaviour in the future. |
| [23] | |
| [24] | Malaysia has been actively involved in environmental issues since 1980. Malaysias rapid urbanization and industrialization have intensified the environmental problems. A potential way of addressing this issue would be to increase the environmental awareness among the public. The objectives of the study described here were to assess the level of environmental knowledge among Malaysian residents in Sabah and Sarawak, to examine the sources of their environmental knowledge, and to analyses the relationship between knowledge and environmental attitude and practice. |
| [25] | In this study, we expanded the perceived value literature by demonstrating the role of selected affective factors (i.e., hedonics, control and novelty) on value in the context of cruise vacation experiences. We also examined the role of customer satisfaction in the affect–value relationship. Our results indicate that affective factors are important determinants of the perceived value of cruise services. In particular, hedonics or pleasure is strongly linked to cruise vacationers’ value perceptions and behavioral intentions. However, overall satisfaction as a mediator accounted for the relationship between affective antecedents and perceived value. The managerial findings of this research are briefly discussed. |
| [26] | ABSTRACT Presents a typology of control and reviews research that relates the 4 types of control (behavioral, cognitive, information, and retrospective) to reactions to aversive stimuli. After a review of theories relevant to this area, a unifying theme is presented. It is proposed that reactions to potentially stressful events depend on their meaning for the individual. Three dimensions of meaning are discussed: endurable vs unendurable, means to desirable outcomes vs no desirable outcomes, and planned vs random events. (68 ref) |
| [27] | While perceived consumer effectiveness (PCE) has consistently been linked to socially conscious attitudes, the concept appears to have been confounded with other related constructs in the empirical studies measuring its effects on behavior. In addition, the few studies which have considered the effects of PCE on reported behavior have done so only in aggregate. This research demonstrates that PCE is distinct from environmental concern and contributes uniquely to the prediction of certain pro-ecological behaviors. In addition, differences in PCE are shown to be associated with differences in demographics and political affiliation. The results suggest that motivating consumers to express their concern through actual behavior is to some extent a function of increasing their perception that individual actions do make a difference. |
| [28] | Evidence from past research and insights from an exploratory investigation are combined in a conceptual model that defines and relates price, perceived quality, and perceived value. Propositions about the concepts and their relationships are presented, then supported with evidence from the literature. Discussion centers on directions for research and implications for managing price, quality, and value. |
| [29] | |
| [30] | |
| [31] | Differing from the previous studies, this study proposed a more integrated tourist behavior model by including destination image and perceived value into the “quality–satisfaction–behavioral intentions” paradigm. The structural relationships between all variables with respect to different stages of tourist behaviors were investigated in the study. The results show that destination image have both direct and indirect effects on behavioral intentions. In addition, the path “destination image→trip quality→perceived value→satisfaction→behavioral intentions” appears evident in this study. |
| [32] | Environmental attitudes (EA), a crucial construct in environmental psychology, are a psychological tendency expressed by evaluating the natural environment with some degree of favour or disfavour. There are hundreds of EA measures available based on different conceptual and theoretical frameworks, and most researchers prefer to generate new measures rather than organize those already available. The present research provides a cumulative and theoretical approach to the measurement of EA, in which the multidimensional and hierarchical nature of EA is considered. Reported are findings from three studies on the development of a psychometrically sound, multidimensional inventory to assess EA cross-culturally, the Environmental Attitudes Inventory (EAI). The EAI has twelve specific scales that capture the main facets measured by previous research. The twelve factors were established through confirmatory factor analyses, and the EAI scales are shown to be unidimensional scales with high internal consistency, homogeneity and high test-retest reliability, and also to be largely free from social desirability. |
| [33] | . |
| [34] | Customer perceived value has a subjective nature, since it means an evaluative judgment. In the literature, it has been noted that the value received by the consumer has a number of components that together determine its significance. The literature has also highlighted the existence of a relationship between perceived value and customer attitude, considering this variable an important determinant of customer loyalty. This paper tries to analyse the influence of the major components of perceived value on customer attitude and loyalty in several retail activities. |
| [35] | The spatial configuration of landscapes can be an important factor influencing the dispersal, distribution and abundance of invasive animals and consequently their impacts. In arid landscapes worldwide, humans have increased the availability of surface water by creating artificial water points (AWP) for livestock and wildlife viewing. The resource subsidy provided by AWP can influence the functioning of arid ecosystems by affecting the density, distribution and activity of water-dependent native and invasive animals and thus facilitate their trophic and competitive interactions. In this study, we used dung count indices to investigate the activity of an invasive herbivore, feral goats ( Capra hircus ), and native herbivores (kangaroos, Macropus spp.) in relation to surface water and habitat type in three conservation reserves located in arid Australia. Activity of feral goats showed a strong preference for rocky ranges habitat and decreased with distance from water. Kangaroo activity showed a strong preference for mulga woodlands, but was independent of distance from water. Our results suggest that artificial water points may exacerbate the impacts of feral goats by functioning as focal points for their activity. Restricting goats access to water by closure of water points or strategic fencing, such that the mean distance to water across the landscape is increased, may be an effective strategy to reduce goat grazing impacts in conservation reserves where natural sources of water are scarce but is unlikely to affect the grazing patterns of kangaroos. Our study suggests that there is scope to control populations of water-dependent invasive vertebrates in arid regions by restricting their access to artificial water points. |
| [36] | This research proposes experiential reciprocity as the process underlying the relationship between direct experience of a national park and perceived value of the park system and its role in preserving the environment. Cross-sectional data of people's experience and perceptions of the United States National Park Service and their values and beliefs related to the park system indicate that a direct experience of a park increases the intrinsic value of the park, even for those who are already environmentally conscious. Consistent with the norm of reciprocity, direct experience of a park also increases willingness to finance the park directly. Given the role of direct experience of the park in fostering an intrinsic appreciation for its role in preserving the environment, waving access fees is offered as a way to promote experiential reciprocity. |
| [37] | . 面对消费者对企业环境导向的"漂绿"怀疑,企业环境主义却引起了消费者的认同。文章以消费者感知效力为调节变量,构建了企业环境主义、合理性感知和消费者环境友好型购买行为之间关系的概念模型,并以"两型社会"实验区武汉和长沙312个消费者为样本,进行了问卷调查。基于结构方程模型的实证结果表明:企业环境主义能够正向影响消费者的合理性感知;而合理性感知对消费者环境友好型购买行为具有显著的正向影响;但消费者感知效力在合理性感知和环境友好型购买行为之间起到调节效应。 面对消费者对企业环境导向的"漂绿"怀疑,企业环境主义却引起了消费者的认同。文章以消费者感知效力为调节变量,构建了企业环境主义、合理性感知和消费者环境友好型购买行为之间关系的概念模型,并以"两型社会"实验区武汉和长沙312个消费者为样本,进行了问卷调查。基于结构方程模型的实证结果表明:企业环境主义能够正向影响消费者的合理性感知;而合理性感知对消费者环境友好型购买行为具有显著的正向影响;但消费者感知效力在合理性感知和环境友好型购买行为之间起到调节效应。 |
| [38] | What are the socioeconomic and personality characteristics of consumers who are ecologically concerned? This article presents a measure of ecological concern and examines the relationship between this measure and consumer characteristics. The implications of the findings for marketers and public policy makers are discussed. |
| [39] | . |
| [40] | No abstract is available for this item. |
| [41] | Sustainability and environmental initiatives continue to receive an increasing amount of attention, both within the corporate, consumer, and individual domains of behavior. As individuals act on their environmental interests, or lack thereof, it is incumbent upon researchers to continue delineating factors that may influence the commitment and behaviors that take place. To this end, this research effort capitalizes on the long history of cultural orientation, examining the influence of individualism and collectivism as antecedents to perceived consumer effectiveness (PCE), environmental attitude, and environmental commitment. Utilizing cross-cultural data drawn from South Korea and the United States, the empirical results provide support for horizontal collectivism and vertical individualism as important influencers of perceived consumer effectiveness. In turn, PCE positively affects environmental attitude which results in pro-environmental commitment manifested in specific behavioral intentions. |
| [42] | Four studies are reported on the structure of environmental attitudes. Based on Stern & Dietz' (1994) value-basis theory for environmental attitudes, we predicted that concerns for environmental issues would form three correlated factors. The first study presents the results from a confirmatory factor analysis of the proposed three-factor model among a sample of 1010 U.S. college students. The second study presents the results from a telephone survey of 1005 U.S. respondents. The third study examines the relationship between the three identified types of environmental concerns, existing measures of environmental attitudes, empathy, and social-value orientation. The final study presents the results from a multi-group confirmatory factor analysis examining the factor structure of environmental concerns among college students in ten countries. Additional analyses are provided on the relationship between values and environmental concerns. Taken together, the results provide strong evidence for the distinction between egoistic, altruistic, and biospheric environmental concerns. |
| [43] | This paper offers a study of the environmental attitudes of graduates from the University of Zaragoza and their relationship with pro-environmental behaviour. These attitudes were analysed using a validated Likert scale, along with a questionnaire on environmental behaviours. A set of 20 items in the scale were grouped into four categories: Formation, Outreach activities, Conservation and Intention to act. Also, a set of 12 items were used to evaluate environmental behaviour. Structural equation modelling was used to test a causal model relating attitude to behaviours. The model shows the connection between two of the attitudinal factors conservation and intention to act with pro-environmental behaviour. The most relevant to the causal model is that the Conservation factor is the one that has shown the closest relation with Behaviour and this relation is shown through the Intention to act. The study involved 60 graduates that belong to departments that offer either compulsory or optional courses concerning the environment. This study suggests that conservation perspective should be considered in the university studies, both in interdisciplinary education programs and research programs. Moreover, the results obtained in this research work suggest that providing in the University adequate resources and habits in everyday academic life turns to be a very significant aspect for fostering pro-environmental behaviour. |
| [44] | The purpose of this study was to examine visitors' attitudes towards an environmentally-responsible tourist behaviour – fossil collecting – and towards the visitor management strategies for managing this behaviour at an environmentally sensitive tourism destination. In particular, a market segmentation approach based on environmental attitudes was applied to identify distinct types of tourist groups and understand differences between segments in terms of demographic, attitudinal and behavioural characteristics. Data from 453 visitors were collected from the Charmouth coastal area, located in the South West of England, which is popular for fossil collection. The results of the research highlight that such nature-based areas tend to attract tourists who have favourable environmental attitudes and support management approaches related to responsible fossil collection. However, further analysis reveals that two distinct types of environmental attitude-based market segments exist that are significantly different in terms of gender, age and usage patterns of on-site interpretation. This study suggests that targeting the two segments (namely, the “high environmental attitude” versus “low environmental attitude” groups) with different on-site communication strategies is not only possible, but may prove to be a more efficient and effective approach to visitor and site management. |
| [45] | |
| [46] | |
| [47] | Abstract This article develops a conceptual framework for advancing theories of environmentally significant individual behavior and reports on the attempts of the author's research group and others to develop such a theory. It discusses definitions of environmentally significant behavior; classifies the behaviors and their causes; assesses theories of environmentalism, focusingespecially on value-belief-norm theory; evaluates the relationship between environmental concern and behavior; and summarizes evidence on the factors that determine environmentally significant behaviors and that can effectively alter them. The article concludes by presenting some major propositions supported by available research and some principles for guiding future research and informing the design of behavioral programs for environmental protection. |
| [48] | Environmental problems are mainly attributable to the impact of humans on natural systems. In the case of Malaysia, rapid urbanization and Malaysian consumer' pursuit of consumption-oriented lifestyles have intensified the solid-waste management problem faced by the government. Increasing public environmental awareness is a potential way of addressing this. The objectives of the study described here were to assess the level of environmental knowledge among households in Selangor in Malaysia, examine the sources of their environmental knowledge, determine factors that lead to different levels of knowledge and analyse the relationship between knowledge and environmental attitude, behaviour and participation. The results of the study indicate that, in general, respondents' basic or general environmental knowledge was high. However, when questioned on various scientific environmental terms, the majority of the respondents were not familiar with most of them. Respondents indicated that their main sources of environmental knowledge and information were newspapers, television and radio. Lower levels of education were reflected in the level of environmental knowledge. Participation in environmental activities had a positive influence on knowledge. The study also found that knowledge correlated positively with environmental attitudes, behaviours and participation. |
| [49] | Value creation is widely discussed in the practitioner literature and is often a part of organizations’ mission statements and objectives. It is seen by many commentators as the key to long-term success, with Albrecht (1992, p 7) arguing that “the only thing that matters in the new world of quality is delivering customer value.” Despite this emphasis, little research has addressed the value construct itself and there is no well-accepted value measure, even in the retail environment in which customers evaluate products before purchase. The present research project describes the development of a 19-item measure, PERVAL, that can be used to assess customers’ perceptions of the value of a consumer durable good at a brand level. The measure was developed for use in a retail purchase situation to determine what consumption values drive purchase attitude and behavior. Four distinct, value dimensions emerged that were termed emotional, social, quality/performance and price/value for money. The reliability and validity of the scale was assessed in a prepurchase situation, using exploratory and confirmatory analyses. All four value dimensions were found to help significantly in explaining attitudes and behavior. The scale was also tested in a postpurchase situation and found to be both reliable and valid in this context as well. The PERVAL scale has a variety of potential applications and can serve as a framework for further empirical research in this important area. |
| [50] | Since rapidly growing numbers of customers prefer environmentally responsible products, efforts to “green” hotel operations are becoming increasingly important. The study reported here was designed to investigate guests’ intention formation when selecting an environmentally responsible hotel. The intention was to extend the Model of Goal-directed Behavior (MGB) by integrating several essential variables (environmental awareness, perceived effectiveness, and eco-friendly behavior and reputation) in explicating customers’ eco-friendly behavior. Findings from the measurement model indicated that study variables included a satisfactory level of reliability and validity. Results from the structural modeling revealed that the proposed theoretical framework had a strong ability to anticipate intention; incorporated constructs that played a vital role in hotel guests’ decision formation; and identified attitudes and desires that acted as mediators. The role of established variables in the original MGB was redefined. Our model had superior prediction power over the MGB, accounting for guests’ environmentally friendly buying behavior accurately. |
| [51] | |
| [52] | Researchers interested in ecotourists have explored their sociodemographic and travel characteristics and/or the benefits they seek from an “ecotourism” experience. Few have attempted to address why ecotourists travel to natural resource areas and whether their travel is accompanied by environmentally responsible behavior, especially after the travel experience. The purpose of this study was to develop a motivational and behavioral profile of a distinct segment of ecotourists—individuals who visited coastal wetlands located in Taiwan. The results indicated that tourists’ motivations for visiting coastal wetlands vary and include motives (e.g., pursuit of physical health) not traditionally identified in studies conducted with tourists in the Western Hemisphere. Further, based on a profile of environmentally responsible behavior, three types (i.e., experience-tourists, learning-tourists, and ecotourists) of tourists were identified. However, only one of the three types of tourists fit the traditional definition applied to “ecotourists.” |
| [53] | Outdoor recreation participation has increased over the past decades and is projected for further growth. Given the increase, it is important to assess recreationists’ environmental values, activity style, general, and site-specific attitudes and behaviors to promote environmental stewardship, and to develop effective strategies in natural resource management and public policy. This study explored recreationists’ environmental attitude-behavior relationship and the impact of outdoor recreation activity orientation (as a mediator variable) on attitude-behavior correspondence. Overall, attitudes exhibited stronger direct relationships with behaviors, when compared to the effect of participation on behaviors. The influence of activity participation on attitude-behavior correspondence was not significantly demonstrative. The association between participation in outdoor recreation and environmentalism is complex, and there is a need for additional research to better understand the relationship. |
