西北师范大学地理与环境科学学院,兰州 730070
Sustainable livelihoods research from the perspective of geography: The present status, questions and priority areas
ZHAOXueyan收稿日期:2017-04-17
修回日期:2017-07-15
网络出版日期:2017-10-20
版权声明:2017《地理研究》编辑部《地理研究》编辑部
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主旨聚焦：以“人地关系”为核心议题的地理学应充分发挥其学科优势,在其框架内深入开展生计集成研究;同时,应紧密结合国家重大战略,积极探索富有特色的可持续生计路径。
1 引言
地球已进入了人类世（Anthropocene Era）的新纪元[1],人类活动在不同尺度上影响着环境变化过程,使人类不仅面临着气候变化、生物多样性损失、环境污染、水土流失、荒漠化、资源枯竭等全球或地区尺度的资源环境问题,更面临着经济全球化、大规模人口迁移、快速城镇化等问题,人地关系变得异常复杂难解,当前急需寻求全新的视角阐释复杂的人地关系。生计作为人类最主要的行为方式,已成为驱动人地系统演化的主导因素[2],影响着人地关系的发展与走向。因而,可持续生计方法一经提出,就得到以“人地关系”为核心议题的地理学的广泛关注,并将其作为理解贫困、自然资源利用、环境保护及可持续发展的一个新视角和新工具,来探索复杂的人地关系。地理学作为一个由动态观察世界的方法、综合的领域、空间表述组成的三维学科矩阵[3],其多样化的研究范式为可持续生计研究提供了更加多维的研究视角和更广阔的研究平台,但目前在可持续生计研究中地理学尚未完全彰显其综合性、区域性、交叉性等优势,尤其未能在地理学框架内实现生计及其组成要素的相互作用机理、生计的时空格局与演变等问题的深化研究。为了进一步促进地理学中的可持续生计研究,本文在概述可持续生计研究的缘起与框架的基础上,探讨地理学中可持续生计研究的现状、问题和未来发展的重要领域,以期为中国可持续生计及相关领域的研究提供参考和借鉴。
2 可持续生计研究的缘起与框架
2.1 可持续生计研究的缘起
可持续生计作为一种国际发展思想的范式转变[4],起源于20世纪80-90年代Sen等关于贫困问题的研究。基于农村穷人的研究,可持续生计方法以“资产—可得性—活动”为主线,将人放在发展的中心,把参与式、自下而上方法与宏观管理、政策及制度的影响识别等结合起来,形成了一种思维方式、一套原则及一个分析框架[5],为理解与解决复杂的农村发展问题提供了重要工具。1987年召开的联合国环境与发展大会上,Brundtland在她的报告“我们共同的未来”中首次提出可持续生计,但直到1992年Chambers与Conway在向世界环境与发展委员会（WCED）提供的工作论文中将生计定义为“建立在能力、资产和活动基础之上的谋生方式,且只有当一种生计能够应对并在压力和打击下得到恢复,并能在当前和未来保持乃至加强其能力和资产,同时又不损坏自然资源基础,这种生计才是可持续的”[6]之后,目前常用的可持续生计概念才出现。事实上,早在1992年Chambers等明确可持续生计概念以前,跨学科的生计观点已经深刻影响着农村发展思想与实践,虽然这些研究没有被贴上生计分析的标签,但这种综合性、跨部门、地方性以及更深领域的参与以及行动承诺已属于经典生计分析范畴[7]。
作为一种寻找农户生计脆弱原因并提供多种解决方案的集成分析框架和建设性工具[8],可持续生计方法引起了牛津饥荒救济委员会（Oxfam）、联合国开发计划署（UNDP）、美国援外合作署（CARE）、英国国际发展署（DFID）与联合国粮农组织(FAO)等国际机构的兴趣,它们将其作为“一种可更好地掌握生计复杂性、理解生计策略对贫困的影响及识别采取何种干预措施的方法”[5],广泛用于南美洲、非洲、中东欧以及亚洲等地的扶贫开发和生计建设目实践中,为可持续生计研究带来了新思想和实践经验,使其不断发展并日臻成熟,成为1990年代以来主流的国际发展方法[9]。近年来,可持续生计方法也被广泛用于贫困、脆弱性、土地利用/覆被变化、气候变化适应以及对快速城市化及复杂的突发事件、冲突与灾难的响应等问题,但实证研究较多,理论层面未取得突破性进展[10]。
2.2 可持续生计研究的框架
生计被看作由资产、脆弱性背景、制度过程以及组织结构、生计策略、生计结果等要素组成的系统[11]。其中,资产不仅是人们用来构建生计的资源,也是控制、利用、转变资源规则的权利基础;脆弱性背景是人们生活在其中的外部环境,包括特定的条件、趋势、冲击及季节性等,它影响着资产的可得性与可控性[12];生计策略是指人们实现生计目标的活动与选择的组合[13];生计结果是从事生计策略的产出与结果（例如,收入增加、福利改善、脆弱性减轻、食物安全改善）,在给定环境中资产通过一些策略被结合在一起,产生期望的生计结果[14];制度过程以及组织结构对生计非常关键,它在所有层面上起作用且决定着资源的可得性,影响着不同类型资本之间的交换条件及生计策略的 选择[7]。可持续生计研究关注上述组分及其相互作用。为了全面理解基于原因与效果分析的可持续生计形成过程,增强对穷人生计的了解和帮助,为规划和管理提供一个适用工具,许多国际机构和组织如DFID、CARE、UNDP、FAO、WB以及一些研究者如Scoones、Bebbington、Ellis等开发了各有侧重的可持续生计分析框架[15]。其中,DFID提出的可持续生计分析框架（图1）为可持续生计研究提供一种规范化的工具和系统化的思路[16]。
显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT图1DFID的可持续生计分析框架
-->Fig. 1The framework of sustainable livelihoods approach from DFID
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3 地理学视角下可持续生计研究的现状
目前,地理学已成为可持续生计研究最活跃的学科之一。随着研究的不断深入,逐渐形成了一些研究热点,主要包括生计的空间分异、生计与生态环境的相互作用、气候变化对生计的影响、生计与土地利用/覆被变化、生态补偿对生计的影响、乡村旅游与农户生计以及生计脆弱性评价等方面（图2）。
显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT图2地理学中可持续生计研究的热点问题
-->Fig. 2The hot topics of sustainable livelihoods research in geography
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3.1 生计的空间分异
生计实际上反映了人类对资源的有选择利用[17]。作为理解资源利用与潜在福利的出发点,它总是与特定的环境、社会和文化等紧密相关,自然地理环境的地域分异与社会经济条件的区域差异使人类在资源利用上呈现出不同的资源价值取向、利用方式及利用层次,导致生计具有显著的区域差异性。生计的空间分异不仅表现在生计资产上,还表现在生计方式、生计风险、生计安全及生计脆弱性等方面。大量研究采用主成分分析法、专家咨询法、离差最大化法、层次分析法、熵值法等方法测算了生计资本,并利用GIS技术与空间自相关分析法剖析了生计资本的空间分布特征,发现生计资本存在显著的空间分异[18]。它与经济发展水平、人口分布、交通通达性、地形起伏度有较强的相关性[19],在空间上存在海拔越高生计资产越低的趋势[20];受地形、区位等因素的影响,生计方式也呈明显的梯度发展特征,随着距市中心的距离以及海拔高度的增加,农户的生计多样化水平、非农化水平均趋于降 低[21,22];生计脆弱性则存在海拔越高生计越脆弱[23]、越到干旱区内陆河下游生计越脆弱的趋势[24]。
生计的区域差异性是地理学关注的核心问题,但目前多关注生计的空间分异规律,较少关注分异因素。未来,不仅需要关注生计空间分异的主导因素及分异规律,还需要关注生计空间分异引发的社会、经济及生态效应分异。
3.2 生计与生态环境的关系
人类生计与生态环境的关系已成为当今可持续发展的核心科学命题之一[25]。1992年联合国环境与发展会议将可持续生计作为一种连接社会经济与环境问题的手段[26],把对环境问题的关注转向对人们及其生计活动的关注,并将这些问题放在可持续发展框架内。目前已在生计与生态环境协调发展、基于生计的生态恢复等方面开展了大量研究。在地方层面的生计背景中,环境可持续问题集中于生计活动是否维持与加强、或耗尽与退化自然资源基础。在许多发展中国家,农户尤其贫困农户的生计选择往往对自然环境具有强烈的依赖性[27],环境资源为其提供着各种生态服务[28,29],开发环境资源成为低收入农村家庭的一种重要收入来源与生计手段[30]。但是,过度依赖环境资源的生计活动会导致环境退化[31],使农户陷入贫困—环境陷阱[32],甚至引发环境移民[33]。为了更好地剖析生计与生态环境之间的关系,Eloise M Biggs等将水—能源—粮食关系框架与生计框架结合起来,建立了环境生计安全框架[34];Sherbinin等则揭示了环境因素与人口因素之间的多路径关系[35],有效证明了环境因素对家庭生计决策的影响。
理解农户生计与生态环境的相互作用关系对于促进可持续发展至关重要,但目前的研究多集中在地方层面上,且常常低估或忽略环境收入对农户生计的贡献[36]。未来,应重视生计与生态环境的相互作用过程与作用机理,进一步探索农户生计与环境资源的联系,识别环境—生计组分之间的协同效应与权衡,并从环境视角开展生计安全研究;关注全球层面上的生计活动对环境可持续性的贡献及由此引发的对其他尺度生计的影响。
3.3 气候变化对生计的影响
气候变化作为21世纪人类面临的最严峻挑战之一,对农业人口的影响尤为显著,理解气候变化对其生计的影响对于探明气候变化的适应机制、制定有效的适应政策至关重要[37]。鉴于此,IPCC第五次评估报告系统评估了当前和未来（至2100年）气候变化对贫困与生计的影响、气候变化对贫困时空变化的影响以及气候变化与其他压力相互作用对生计选择及其轨迹的影响[38]。大量研究显示,贫困农业人口受气候变化的影响更为严峻。气候变化已成为农村穷人的一种额外负担,不仅限制了穷人获取各种生计资本的能力,也减少了他们谋生活动的选择范围,对农村社团的生计、资源退化、食物安全、基本服务、社会不平等带来严峻挑战,加剧了农户生计的风险性和脆弱性[37,39]。为了理解气候变化与其他风险对生计影响的差异以及这些驱动力之间的相互关系,Reed等将可持续生计框架和生态系统服务框架结合起来建立了一个集成框架,诊断气候变化对农户生计的影响,帮助实践者寻找干预点、确定干预活动顺序并制定适应方案[40]。
气候变化对农户生计的影响虽已成为全球关注的焦点之一,但目前多关注过去或当前气候变化造成的已有影响,较少关注不同气候变化情景及多重压力的影响;多关注气候变化对农户生计的影响程度,尚未完全探明其影响过程与影响机制。
3.4 生计与土地利用/覆被变化
土地利用/覆被变化及其驱动机制是全球变化和可持续发展研究的前沿与重点领域。在广大发展中国家,随着工业化和城镇化的快速发展,农户生计向以非农化为主的多样化转变。生计多样化作为发展中国家农户采取的一种重要生计策略,主要通过诱发农业劳动力不足和非农收入增加,对农户的土地利用类型和集约化水平等产生强烈影响,从而驱动土地利用/覆被变化[41]。可以说,农户生计为土地利用/覆被变化提供了重要的解释工具[42]。目前,农户生计与土地利用/覆被变化研究大致可归为两类。一类关注农户生计转型对土地利用/覆被变化的影响,侧重于揭示农户生计演变与耕地利用模式、土地利用效率、居民点用地模式、土地流转等方面的关系[21,41,43,44];另一类则关注农户生计对土地利用/覆被变化的响应,侧重于剖析农户生计对土地退化、土地用途变更、土地流转及土地利用集约度变化等方面的响应[45]。研究案例区主要集中在生态脆弱区和贫困地区,近年来大都市郊区因其土地利用变化的剧烈性、快速性及复杂性,也成为相关研究关注的热点区域。其中,国外案例区集中在南非、坦桑尼亚、埃塞俄比亚、斯里兰卡、老挝、印尼等多个国家,而国内案例区涵盖了青藏高原、内蒙古高原、三峡库区、西部山区、大都市郊区等多个区域[46]。
事实上,生计转型与土地利用/覆被变化是同一个社会过程的不同表现。其中,生计转型是农户对社会、经济、家庭、制度等变化所做决策的一种表现,而土地利用/覆被变化也是该决策的一种表现,二者之间存在着共生关系[47]。但目前更关注“一方”对“另一方”驱动,尚未将二者放在统一的框架中考察其共生关系。未来,还需对生计与土地利用/覆被之间的共生关系进行深入研究,揭示二者之间的 “驱动—反馈”互动机制及其共生关系的演变规律。
3.5 生态补偿对生计的影响
随着全球生态系统的退化及其提供有用生态服务的丧失和减少,生态补偿作为一种处理环境问题的有效政策工具集得到了发展中国家与发达国家的广泛关注。农户作为生态系统服务的主要提供者及生态补偿项目的主要参与者[48],生态补偿对其生计的影响不仅关系到项目可持续性,更关系到社会公平性。受区域自然环境、社会经济条件、补偿方式、补偿标准及补偿年限等因素的影响,生态补偿对农户生计的影响具有显著的地域性和结构性差异。赵雪雁等在甘南黄河水源补给区的研究发现,生态补偿后除农户拥有的自然资本下降外,其余各类生计资本均显著增加[48];但其他****在宁夏和贵州的研究却发现,退耕还林工程对农户的种植业收入产生显著的负面影响[49]。与此同时,有研究发现生态补偿引发的土地利用变化,降低了农户的流动性约束,促进了农户在非农部门的就业[50],提高了生计多样化程度[13];但也有研究发现,农户的替代生计选择具有路径依赖性,往往偏好在原有生计基础上建设低风险类生计,这使得生态补偿项目的持续性遭到严峻挑战[51]。
辨明生态补偿对农户生计的影响有助于制定更可持续的生态补偿政策,但目前研究多关注生态补偿对农户生计的短期及静态影响,较少关注长期影响;多关注生态补偿对生计的影响程度,较少关注其影响过程与影响机制。
3.6 乡村旅游与农户生计
旅游发展因具有亲贫性而得到国际组织与各级政府的重视。2002年8月世界旅游组织在“旅游扶贫”世界首脑会议上强调了旅游业在缓解贫困中的重要作用,并推出了可持续旅游消除贫困计划[52],国家“十三五”规划纲要也将“实施乡村旅游扶贫工程”作为主要抓手。目前,乡村旅游已成为中国旅游业和乡村经济发展的新增长点[53]。已有研究发现,乡村旅游作为外力进入农村社区,不可避免地对乡村的经济结构、社会文化、资源配置、生态环境等产生强烈扰动,从而对农户生计带来多重影响[54]。它不仅影响农村居民点的增长和发展过程,使其具有明显的核心—边缘化特征[55],还促使农户的传统生计活动和生活方式发生变化,引致了农户能源消费模式的转变[56],推动了农户生活的现代化[57]。然而,乡村旅游对农户生计的影响程度与农户距项目区的边界距离、农作物种植类型以及对自然资源的依赖度等有关[58],乡村旅游能否取代或补充既有的生计方式主要取决于家庭如何分配各种资产[59],通常在偏远的民族地区乡村旅游不是取代而是补充了现有的生计方式[60]。为了解析乡村旅游对农户生计的影响,Shen提出了旅游—可持续生计分析框架（STLA）[61];喻中磊等则基于社会—生态系统理论,将乡村旅游作为对乡村社会—生态系统的扰动[62],系统研究了农户适应旅游发展的行为模式、影响因素及机制。
目前研究多注重乡村旅游对农户生计影响的静态效应分析,忽视了动态性与过程性研究,未能深入揭示乡村旅游对农户生计的影响过程与影响机理。未来,应重点围绕乡村旅游对农户生计的影响过程与影响机理、不同生计方式农户对乡村旅游的感知与响应、乡村旅游引导下的农户替代生计选择、基于可持续生计的乡村旅游发展模式及路径选择等问题开展深入研究。
3.7 生计脆弱性评估
全球变化导致的冲击和压力加剧了很多国家和地区的脆弱性[37],开展生计脆弱性评估不仅有利于科学家和决策者理解全球变化的影响,更有利于探索阻碍人们有效响应的潜在因素并寻求降低生计脆弱性的对策,对于建立可持续社会至关重要。目前,已开发出模型评价、利益相关者评价、指标评价等多种生计脆弱性评价方法[63]。其中,模型评价法主要利用生物物理与社会经济模型、心理模型等评价生计脆弱性,该方法关注生计脆弱性的具体驱动力;利益相关者评价法主要利用认知地图、访谈、调查等工具收集信息并分析生计脆弱性,该方法关注受影响个人、群体或社区的感知;指标评价法通过选取代表性评价指标并确定其权重来计算生计脆弱性指数,该方法关注生计脆弱性的成因及其表现。指标评价方法由于有助于理解影响生计脆弱性的各种因素,能为发展政策评估提供参照点、为适应与减缓行动规划提供信息、为确定资源配置优先序提供支撑而得到了广泛应用[63,64]。常见的指标评价方法中,一类是将贫困作为家庭福利的替代指标,基于贫困状态变化或贫困化程度来测量家庭或个体对环境变化的敏感性或不能处理的程度,主要考察受到风险与冲击时,个体或家庭的福利相对于一定福利水平下降的可能性,该类方法包括期望贫困脆弱性评价、低期望效用脆弱性评价以及风险暴露脆弱性评价[65];另一类是将环境变化的生物物理影响（暴露）指标与社会经济特征（敏感性与适应）纳入到一个集成的生计脆弱性指标体系中评估农户的生计脆弱性[63,64,66]。但目前,该方法面临着评价指标缺乏良好的效度与信度、评价结果缺乏验证等挑战[67]。
4 地理学视角下可持续生计研究存在的主要问题
4.1 较少关注生计的动态性
生计演变是一个连续过程,要理解特定地区人们的生计状况,不仅需要了解历史时期该地区人们承受的生计压力及其对生计的影响,还需要了解当前的脆弱性背景与生计压力,更需要预测未来潜在的生计压力如何影响人们的生存。因此,需要对生计进行动态研究,勾勒出生计在时间维度上的变化图景,揭示特定区域的生计过去是如何变化的,未来又将如何变化,以便探明生计的演变过程与演变机制,并模拟不同情景下的生计选择及生计轨迹。目前,虽有研究基于家庭综合调查、深入的传记式访谈、财富排序等方法对比分析了两个或多个时段的农村家庭生计资产或生计策略变化[68,69],但因缺乏长时间的序列数据,对生计的动态性关注不够,大多是对某一时间点或者某一时段内的生计状况进行研究,对生计演变过程与演变机制的理解仍非常有限,不仅未能深入揭示生计组成要素之间的相互作用机理及各要素对生计演变的作用,也缺乏对不同情景下生计演变趋势的模拟与预测。4.2 较少关注全球化对地方尺度生计的影响
目前,人类生计正强烈改变着地表自然格局,造成了全球性、区域性、地方性等不同尺度的环境变化。不同尺度的环境变化并非彼此孤立,而存在着复杂的嵌套—反馈关系,小尺度过程往往嵌套在大尺度过程中,而大尺度过程的反馈则会对小尺度过程产生重要影响[70]。由于生计方法源于强调地方性的复杂学科,已有研究所涉及的空间范围相对较小,往往只关注一个国家的某个地区,且主要针对特定地点的复杂性,所研究的冲击和趋势通常起源于国内,忽视了全球尺度的冲击和趋势（如,经济全球化、全球气候变化等）对地方层面生计的影响。事实上,经济全球化等全球尺度的冲击会对地方层面的生计产生巨大影响,Jha等已经发现农产品经济全球化对农户生计存在多重空间尺度的影响,政府和私营贸易组织通过对农业生产模式、农产品价格及贸易政策的调控直接影响农户生计[71]。未来,需要把可持续生计思想、对地方背景的理解以及对全球化的响应集成起来[7]。4.3 较少关注多重冲击对生计的影响
家庭或个人的生计是否可持续受结构性因素和胁迫性因素的影响。其中,结构性因素源于生计内部结构,胁迫性因素是外界扰动对生计的压力,主要包括自然因素变化（如气候变化、自然灾害等）与人文因素变化（如快速城镇化、公共安全等）的冲击和压力[72]。各种冲击和压力相互作用形成多层次、复杂的反馈和嵌套关系,不仅放大了各种冲击和压力的危害性,也加强了不同冲击和压力之间的转化性。理解家庭和个人的生计,不仅需要明确其面临的主要生计压力及其特征与来源,也需要厘清生计压力与结构性因素之间的复杂关系[73,74],确定不同的压力在哪里以及如何起作用。但目前的研究多针对单一冲击,尤其关注气候变化对农户生计的影响。虽有****开展了多重压力下的生计研究[73,75],指出多重压力通过影响生计资产的可得性及其配置而影响家庭或个人的生计脆弱性,但未深入剖析多重压力之间的相互作用关系、多重压力对生计的影响过程与影响机制、生计对多重压力的适应过程与适应机制等问题[75]。4.4 缺乏新技术方法的综合集成
可持续生计研究需要多学科综合、多角度的分析和多种实现手段的结合。但目前,可持续生计研究主要采用抽样调查、参与式农村评估等方法获取理解生计资本、生计策略及生计结果所需的信息;多采取描述性统计、对比分析及计量经济方法（例如,线性回归模型、Probit模型、Logit模型）分析生计要素的相互作用关系以及外界冲击对生计的影响[76],较少利用地理信息系统（GIS）、全球定位系统（GPS）、遥感技术（RS）、地理空间可视化技术、系统模拟等新技术方法,缺乏传统方法与新技术手段的综合集成。由于目前所获取的数据大都缺乏空间属性,且多为一次性调查所获得的截面数据,缺少长时间序列的观测数据,因而难以支持生计的时空间动态研究;描述性统计、对比分析及计量经济分析等方法虽有助于理解生计特征及外部冲击对生计的影响程度,但其空间分析与解释能力有限,既难以揭示生计组成要素之间的多重反馈关系,也难以刻画生计的时空间格局、过程及变化机制,这无疑限制了可持续生计研究从描述走向解释。5 地理学视角下可持续生计研究的重点领域
地理学作为可持续生计研究最活跃的学科之一,虽然已开展了大量的研究,但研究中仍未充分体现地理学的综合性、区域性、交叉性等特色。未来需要在地理学框架内对生计的格局—过程—机制、生计的跨尺度问题、生计转型的生态—经济—社会效应、生计脆弱性的形成与调控以及生计可持续性等重点领域开展更深入的研究（图3）。
显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT图3地理学中可持续生计研究的不足与重点领域
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5.1 生计的格局—过程—机制研究
受自然要素与人文要素的影响,不同区域的生计既存在着差异性,也存在着相互依赖性,不同区域之间往往通过生计互补、资源交换或贸易,使一个区域的生计得益于另一个区域的生计,例如中国北方的农区—农牧交错区—牧区的生计既存在显著的差异性,也存在相互依赖性。地理学关注地球表层环境的结构、演化过程、区域分异以及人类对地理环境的利用和适应,区别于其他学科的独特性就在于阐释与把握区域差异性及区域间的相互依赖性[77],但目前的研究却对生计的时空格局、演变过程与演变机制关注较少。当前,GIS、GPS、RS、地理空间可视化技术、大数据分析技术已促进了地理数据的加工、分析和表达,使其空间分析与解释能力大大增强。其中,RS、GPS、智能手机APP调查系统可实时获取生计信息,GIS技术不但为生计的空间分析提供了技术支持,也为生计分析从定性到定量、从静态到动态、从过程到模式的转化和发展提供了可能。未来,应加强长期跟踪与持续研究,综合集成GIS、GPS、RS、地理空间可视化技术、大数据分析技术、空间计量经济分析、系统模拟等技术方法,围绕生计的空间分异及空间关联性、生计的时空格局及其动态变化过程、生计演化的影响因素及其作用机制、不同情景下的生计演变路径及演变轨迹模拟与预测等方面开展研究。5.2 生计的跨尺度问题研究
地理学的尺度不是离散的,而是一个连续体,局地到区域和全球的跨尺度相互作用非常普遍,尤其随着全球化的快速推进,不同尺度的生计联系更加紧密,各种时空尺度的生计系统相互嵌套,地方尺度的生计往往与更大尺度的扰动相联系,某一尺度生计系统的变化可能会导致更大尺度或其他地区的生计系统变化,或者当前生计系统的状态可能会通过某些反馈回路造成未来生计系统的变化[70]。例如,地方尺度的生计选择（如砍树以弥补资源不足）会妨碍更大尺度的生计选择（如保持水土和减少温室气体）,短期的生计选择（如开垦边际土地以扩展承载能力）会影响长期的生计选择（如土地的可持续利用）。未来,可利用网络分析、流分析及价值链分析等方法考察生计的跨尺度问题,围绕全球化对地方层面生计的影响、地方层面生计对全球化的响应、不同尺度各种扰动的交互作用、不同尺度多重扰动下的生计选择、不同尺度生计安全性的转换与尺度间的效应传递、家庭—地区—国家尺度的生计特征及其跨尺度关联等问题开展研究。5.3 生计转型的生态—经济—社会效应研究
在剧烈环境变化（如自然灾害、经济波动、快速城镇化等）或家庭生命周期变化的冲击下,农户往往会改变原有生计策略以适应新的人地关系。生计转型作为农户响应人地关系变化的选择,必然会对生态环境、经济发展与社会生活带来一系列影响,使生计—生态—经济—社会之间形成复杂的反馈关系。因此,需要整合生计系统与生态系统、经济系统及社会系统之间的复杂和隐含关系,揭示生计转型对生态环境、经济发展与社会生活的影响过程与影响机制。未来,可将生计转型与生态系统的结构、功能变化联系起来,监测生计转型对生态系统结构与服务功能的影响,分析不同生计方式的居民对重要生态系统服务的依存度及选择服务的优先序、不同生计方式居民对生态系统服务的感知与使用行为差异、不同生计方式居民福祉与生态系统服务消费之间的关系、农户生计对生态系统服务变化的响应等;将生计转型与经济发展、社会转型结合起来,分析农户生计对快速城镇化及农地制度改革的响应、生计转型对农户增收与区域经济发展的贡献、生计转型对传统文化及价值观的影响、生计转型对社会网络与生活质量的影响、生计转型对社会进步指数的影响等问题;开发生计转型的生态—社会—经济效应综合评估模型,科学合理地评估生计转型的综合效应;构建把生计、生态、社会、经济联系在一起的动态模拟模型,模拟与预测不同生计转型情境下的生态效应、经济效应与社会效应。5.4 生计脆弱性的形成与调控研究
生计脆弱性已成为全球环境变化及可持续性科学领域关注的热点问题。为了更好地理解生计脆弱性,国际上已开发出风险—灾害框架、可持续生计框架、风险—脆弱性框架等多种分析框架。近年来,政治生态学、灾害管理、可持续生计以及恢复力研究领域在揭示生计脆弱性产生的社会、制度驱动力及其调控方面也开展了大量工作[78,79],但生计脆弱性的形成与调控问题仍未得到有效解决。“未来地球”框架文件“要求我们不仅要认知实现地球功能的各种过程和生命进化的模式和驱动力,还要知道如何管理和调控我们的行为”。因此需要综合集成自然科学、社会科学与人文科学的研究方法,加强生计脆弱性的形成与调控研究,围绕关键生计压力的识别、多重生计压力间的相互作用、各种生计压力对资产可得性及其配置方式的影响、生计系统对多重压力的响应过程、多重压力下的生计脆弱性评价、生计脆弱性的格局—过程—机制、生计脆弱性的地方特性及其跨尺度传递与转移、生计脆弱性调控的影响因素及其作用机制、生计脆弱性的调控策略开发、不同调控策略的协同效应及权衡、利益相关者在脆弱性调控中的参与、调控策略的尺度效应等问题开展研究。5.5 生计可持续性研究
生计研究的初衷是寻找贫困原因并提供多种解决方案,因而当前研究主要集中在贫困地区与生态脆弱地区。但因不同区域的自然条件、资源禀赋、经济发展、历史文化、宗教信仰等存在差别,生计呈现出明显的地域特色,不同区域塑建可持续生计面临的威胁、挑战与机遇各不相同,同一区域不同群体的生计特征及面临的冲击也全然不同。因此,生计研究不应仅限于贫困地区、生态脆弱区,也不应仅限于农户,而应拓宽研究区域与研究对象,针对不同区域的地域特色及典型群体开展具有代表性的生计可持续性研究。在农村及生态脆弱区,可围绕生计恢复力、生计脆弱性及环境生计安全评价、农户生计对环境资源的依赖性、生计多样化与生计可持续性的关系、重大生态政策对可持续生计的影响、可持续生计与生态环境修复、精准扶贫与可持续生计、替代生计选择及其效应评估、多重约束下环境移民生计重建等问题开展研究;在大都市与城市边缘区可围绕交通运输、流动性与居民生计的关系、交通运输网络变化对外出务工者生计的影响、空气质量下降对城市居民生计的影响、新型城镇化对半城镇化居民生计的影响、失地农户的生计脆弱性及后续生计选择等问题开展研究。6 结论与讨论
生计是一个包含环境、经济、社会和制度等维度的复杂系统,随着资源环境的剧烈变化、经济全球化程度的加剧、人口迁移规模的扩大、城镇化的快速推进,生计遭受的扰动将更多元化、跨尺度,生计将更具动态性与复杂性。未来,地理学应充分发挥其综合与交叉研究的优势,加强学科的融合与创新,积极与生态学、人类学、经济学、社会学、民族学等学科沟通与合作,开展具有人文与自然背景的多部门、多****合作的跨学科、跨尺度的综合集成研究,揭示生计及其组成要素的相互作用机理、脆弱性背景/结构与过程转变对生计的作用路径与作用机制,阐明生计的格局—过程—机制、不同尺度生计系统的嵌套—反馈关系、生计转型的生态—经济—社会效应、生计脆弱性的形成机制与调控机制等重要问题。作为一门“经世致用”的学问,地理学在可持续生计研究中还应注重国家和社会发展的重大需求,紧密结合主体功能区战略、新型城镇化战略、精准扶贫战略、健康中国战略等国家战略开展可持续生计研究,探索富有地域特色的可持续生计路径与模式,为构建和谐社会提供指导与服务。The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
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被引期刊影响因子
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| [2] | . <p>生计方式是影响生态环境的重要人文因素。利用参与式农村评估方法,从生活用能与生态足迹出发,研究了甘南高原不同生计方式农户的环境影响。结果发现:① 随着非农化水平的提高,农户生活用能总量下降,其中生物质能比重降低,而商品性能源比重增加;② 随着非农化水平的提高,农户的人均生态足迹下降,农户对草地资源的依赖程度降低,但对林地、建筑用地、水域、化石能源用地的依赖程度增强;③提高非农化水平及农户受教育程度将减缓对生态环境的影响,而扩大家庭规模、提高富裕水平具有加剧环境影响的作用,但是现有样本数据支持环境Kuznets曲线假说。</p> <p>生计方式是影响生态环境的重要人文因素。利用参与式农村评估方法,从生活用能与生态足迹出发,研究了甘南高原不同生计方式农户的环境影响。结果发现:① 随着非农化水平的提高,农户生活用能总量下降,其中生物质能比重降低,而商品性能源比重增加;② 随着非农化水平的提高,农户的人均生态足迹下降,农户对草地资源的依赖程度降低,但对林地、建筑用地、水域、化石能源用地的依赖程度增强;③提高非农化水平及农户受教育程度将减缓对生态环境的影响,而扩大家庭规模、提高富裕水平具有加剧环境影响的作用,但是现有样本数据支持环境Kuznets曲线假说。</p> |
| [3] | . |
| [4] | . This paper is a case study of the influence of research on a particular shift in policy for theDepartment of International Development (DFID). In the 1997 White Paper on internationaldevelopment, DFID made the ‘sustainable livelihoods approach’ (or SLA), a core principle of itsstrategy for pro-poor policy making. The concept of SLA had first appeared in research literature inthe 1980s, and its inclusion in the White Paper marked its transfer to the policy domain. ThisWorking Paper offers a descriptive narrative of this progression, identifies major events in the story,and analyses this successful transfer from research to practice and policy through the framework ofcontext, evidence and links. |
| [5] | . A number of new aid vehicles have been introduced recently, mainly by the Washington-based institutions. This paper aims, first, to give an overview of the range and provisions of these, and then to assess how they might relate to existing approaches to development, specifically sustainable livelihoods and rights-based approaches. |
| [6] | . 可持续生计分析框架是围绕可持续发展而提出的一种新的研究工具,是一种旨在分析社会和物质环境之间多维复杂关系的框架。通过对可持续生计研究中的国外进展的系统阐述和理论总结,较为清晰和全面地把握了可持续生计分析框架的发展轨迹和重要成果,重点阐明了可持续生计分析框架中的脆弱性背景、生计资本、生计战略和生计输出、结构和过程的转变等组分以及它们之间的相互关系,显示出人们如何利用大量的资本、权利和可能的策略去追求某种生计出路的途径。并在此基础上,讨论了可持续生计分析框架在规划确认和设计、规划新的项目和检查评估现有发展活动中的应用;这些研究在扶贫领域具有较强的参照和指导意义。 . 可持续生计分析框架是围绕可持续发展而提出的一种新的研究工具,是一种旨在分析社会和物质环境之间多维复杂关系的框架。通过对可持续生计研究中的国外进展的系统阐述和理论总结,较为清晰和全面地把握了可持续生计分析框架的发展轨迹和重要成果,重点阐明了可持续生计分析框架中的脆弱性背景、生计资本、生计战略和生计输出、结构和过程的转变等组分以及它们之间的相互关系,显示出人们如何利用大量的资本、权利和可能的策略去追求某种生计出路的途径。并在此基础上,讨论了可持续生计分析框架在规划确认和设计、规划新的项目和检查评估现有发展活动中的应用;这些研究在扶贫领域具有较强的参照和指导意义。 |
| [7] | |
| [8] | . 自从以布伦特兰德夫人领导的委员会正式提出可持续发展概念以来,可持续发展受到社会各界的密切关注,可持续发展思想已经深入人心。但由于问题的复杂性,既使是今天,可持续的实现依然困难。因此,围绕可持续发展提出了各式各样的研究工具,其中可持续生计方法和脆弱性分析方法可谓是众多方法中的佼佼者。前者强调贫困的消除,后者强调脆弱性的缓解,可持续发展又是其共同的目的。本文对两种方法在概念和实施方案方面进行了比较分析,在明确它们的差异和相似之处的基础上,认为两种方法通过联合可以在实践中相互加强和相互促进。 . 自从以布伦特兰德夫人领导的委员会正式提出可持续发展概念以来,可持续发展受到社会各界的密切关注,可持续发展思想已经深入人心。但由于问题的复杂性,既使是今天,可持续的实现依然困难。因此,围绕可持续发展提出了各式各样的研究工具,其中可持续生计方法和脆弱性分析方法可谓是众多方法中的佼佼者。前者强调贫困的消除,后者强调脆弱性的缓解,可持续发展又是其共同的目的。本文对两种方法在概念和实施方案方面进行了比较分析,在明确它们的差异和相似之处的基础上,认为两种方法通过联合可以在实践中相互加强和相互促进。 |
| [9] | . This book provides some practical advice on how to address problems of sustainability in developing nations, demonstrating the precepts of the ‘sustainable livelihood approach’ (SLA) by examining a two-year case study of a microfinance ... |
| [10] | . 61Contemporary livelihoods approaches oversimplify decision-making.61Reframing livelihoods as intimate government explains more observed decisions.61Such a02reframed approach is implementable in a standardized, rigorous manner. |
| [11] | . Livelihood resilience draws attention to the factors and processes that keep livelihoods functioning despite change and thus enriches the livelihood approach which puts people, their differential capabilities to cope with shocks and how to reduce poverty and improve adaptive capacity at the centre of analysis. However, the few studies addressing resilience from a livelihood perspective take different approaches and focus only on some dimensions of livelihoods. This paper presents a framework that can be used for a comprehensive empirical analysis of livelihood resilience. We use a concept of resilience that considers agency as well as structure. A review of both theoretical and empirical literature related to livelihoods and resilience served as the basis to integrate the perspectives. The paper identifies the attributes and indicators of the three dimensions of resilience, namely, buffer capacity, self-organisation and capacity for learning. The framework has not yet been systematically tested; however, potentials and limitations of the components of the framework are explored and discussed by drawing on empirical examples from literature on farming systems. Besides providing a basis for applying the resilience concept in livelihood-oriented research, the framework offers a way to communicate with practitioners on identifying and improving the factors that build resilience. It can thus serve as a tool for monitoring the effectiveness of policies and practices aimed at building livelihood resilience. |
| [12] | . This is the second of two articles exploring coastal management in South Africa. It focuses on the adoption of the Sustainable Livelihoods approach that has underpinned recent policy implementation efforts. This approach complements prevailing coastal management thinking and practice by focusing attention on the strategies that poor people use to access coastal resources, mediated by governance institutions and social relations, in the pursuit of desired livelihood outcomes. South Africa's efforts to adopt this approach help to better understand coastal livelihood opportunities and challenges, identify priority interventions for improving livelihood prospects, and reveal imperatives for building sustainable coastal livelihoods. |
| [13] | . . |
| [14] | . Forest environmental resources provide substantial contributions to the wellbeing of many rural dwellers. However, the level of forest use and the degree of reliance on forest environmental products differ across households. The factors that condition a household’s economic reliance on a particular economic activity in general and on forest environmental resources in particular may vary depending on the resource endowment of the household, the household’s demographic and economic characteristics, and exogenous factors such as markets, prices and technologies. This paper identifies the factors that condition a household’s livelihood strategy choice with a particular focus on forest products. For this, we use the livelihood approach as a framework of analysis. Environmentally augmented household income data were collected from 360 sample households in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia. On the basis of the share of forest environmental income in total household income, sample households were clustered into distinct livelihood strategies. Student’s t-test and ANOVA were used to test income differences among the clusters. Multinomial logit (MNL) regression on asset-based explanatory variables was run to identify the main factors that determine households’ livelihood strategy choice and forest dependence. The analyses indicate that differential access to, or endowment of, livelihood assets determines the choice of a household’s strategy. Asset-poor households should be encouraged to engage in activities with higher economic return. |
| [15] | . <p>在中国当前快速城镇化和城乡二元结构背景下,可持续生计研究不仅对解决农村贫困问题,也对促进居住在城市的大量半城镇化农民的市民化有重要的理论和现实意义。首先回顾了可持续生计的产生与发展历程,并介绍了现有的可持续生计分析框架。然后从理论和实证2个方面归纳了国外可持续生计研究的现状,从脆弱性背景、生计资产、政策机构与作用过程、生计策略与生计输出4个方面总结了国内可持续生计的研究进展。研究认为,当前国内外可持续生计存在的问题包括：理论体系还不够成熟,有待完善;研究方法和技术手段不足,影响研究结果;静态评估为主,缺乏动态预测;以农村地区点状研究为主,缺少城镇化过程中半城镇化农民可持续生计以及宏观层面的研究。最后,提出了未来可持续生计研究的重点方向,包括城镇化进程中大量半城镇化农民的可持续生计研究,宏观尺度的可持续生计研究,人文与自然交叉学科的综合集成研究,基于新技术手段的动态研究,以及典型案例区的可持续生计研究。</p> . <p>在中国当前快速城镇化和城乡二元结构背景下,可持续生计研究不仅对解决农村贫困问题,也对促进居住在城市的大量半城镇化农民的市民化有重要的理论和现实意义。首先回顾了可持续生计的产生与发展历程,并介绍了现有的可持续生计分析框架。然后从理论和实证2个方面归纳了国外可持续生计研究的现状,从脆弱性背景、生计资产、政策机构与作用过程、生计策略与生计输出4个方面总结了国内可持续生计的研究进展。研究认为,当前国内外可持续生计存在的问题包括：理论体系还不够成熟,有待完善;研究方法和技术手段不足,影响研究结果;静态评估为主,缺乏动态预测;以农村地区点状研究为主,缺少城镇化过程中半城镇化农民可持续生计以及宏观层面的研究。最后,提出了未来可持续生计研究的重点方向,包括城镇化进程中大量半城镇化农民的可持续生计研究,宏观尺度的可持续生计研究,人文与自然交叉学科的综合集成研究,基于新技术手段的动态研究,以及典型案例区的可持续生计研究。</p> |
| [16] | |
| [17] | . Cattle-raising, especially for dairy, has expanded in the Ecuadorian Andes since the late 1990s as smallholding farmers have shifted their livelihood activities away from crop-based agriculture due to changes in climate, market conditions, and rural out-migration. Non-migrants constructing cattle-based livelihoods are turning to cattle as the basis for “viable” livelihoods in order to remain in depopulating rural parishes. Non-migrant farmers express ideals such as autonomy and tranquility as reasons for their attachment to rural places. In turn, their livelihood activities remake these places materially. Drawing on Tim Ingold’s conceptualization of taskscape and landscape, I argue that cattle-based livelihoods create ataskscapeprone to human–wildlife conflict. Since 2009, residents have reported dozens of Andean bear attacks on cattle. Cattle are vulnerable capital assets. They represent both an investment with daily and weekly dividends over many years, in the form of milk, and a long-term form of wealth storage. The turn to cattle-based livelihoods in this region has thus heightened human–bear conflict. The phenomenon of the human–bear conflict is therefore a product of shifting livelihoods and accompanying changes in the taskscape. This analysis demonstrates the importance of listening to narratives of place attachment and accounting for the cultural logics of livelihood choices when considering interventions to address human–wildlife conflict. |
| [18] | . 地处青藏高原东缘的甘南高原是典型的生态环境脆弱区,提高农牧民的生计资本成为该区消除贫困、保护环境、可持续利用自然资源的基础与关键。本文建立了生计资本评估指标,结合实地调查资料评估了甘南高原纯牧区、半农半牧区和农区农户的生计资本状况,分析了不同区域农户面临的生活压力及需要的帮助,并采用logistic回归模型分析了农户生计资本对其生活满意度的影响,提出了提高农户生计资本的策略。研究表明:(1)农户生计资本存在空间异质性,纯牧区农户的生计资本总指数最高、农区次之、半农半牧区最低;(2)面临的稀缺资本不同,农区农户缺乏自然资本和物质资本,半农半牧区农户缺乏物质资本,纯牧区农户缺乏金融资本;(3)农户的生活满意度不高,面临一系列生活压力,但农户自身对生计风险的响应相对被动、消极,更多依赖国家政策;(4)目前对农户生活满意度影响最大的是物质资本,对提高农户生活满意度具有重要贡献的是人力资本与社会资本。 . 地处青藏高原东缘的甘南高原是典型的生态环境脆弱区,提高农牧民的生计资本成为该区消除贫困、保护环境、可持续利用自然资源的基础与关键。本文建立了生计资本评估指标,结合实地调查资料评估了甘南高原纯牧区、半农半牧区和农区农户的生计资本状况,分析了不同区域农户面临的生活压力及需要的帮助,并采用logistic回归模型分析了农户生计资本对其生活满意度的影响,提出了提高农户生计资本的策略。研究表明:(1)农户生计资本存在空间异质性,纯牧区农户的生计资本总指数最高、农区次之、半农半牧区最低;(2)面临的稀缺资本不同,农区农户缺乏自然资本和物质资本,半农半牧区农户缺乏物质资本,纯牧区农户缺乏金融资本;(3)农户的生活满意度不高,面临一系列生活压力,但农户自身对生计风险的响应相对被动、消极,更多依赖国家政策;(4)目前对农户生活满意度影响最大的是物质资本,对提高农户生活满意度具有重要贡献的是人力资本与社会资本。 |
| [20] | . 以四川省凉山州彝族自治州(凉山州)为例,运用熵值法和聚类分析法将其生计资本划分成较高、中等和较低三级,并将各县(市)农户生计资本划分成不同的类型。在此基础上,对农户生计资本的空间格局特征进行研究,结果表明:1.生计资本的空间差异特征明显。农户生计资本分布与凉山州地理资源条件空间位置有较强的藕合性,安宁河流域的"五县一市"农户生计资本存量水平均高于其他县域;县域生计资本空间差异十分显著,农户生计资本表现出较强的空间聚集性。2.农户生计资本存量与少数民族人口空间分布呈极强的负相关,即凉山州少数民族(或彝族)集中分布区与生计资本的低值区基本相重合。3.农户生计资本存量与交通优势度之间呈强的正相关,与地形起伏度呈中度负相关。4.农户生计资本总量与农民人均纯收入之间呈极强的正相关。 . 以四川省凉山州彝族自治州(凉山州)为例,运用熵值法和聚类分析法将其生计资本划分成较高、中等和较低三级,并将各县(市)农户生计资本划分成不同的类型。在此基础上,对农户生计资本的空间格局特征进行研究,结果表明:1.生计资本的空间差异特征明显。农户生计资本分布与凉山州地理资源条件空间位置有较强的藕合性,安宁河流域的"五县一市"农户生计资本存量水平均高于其他县域;县域生计资本空间差异十分显著,农户生计资本表现出较强的空间聚集性。2.农户生计资本存量与少数民族人口空间分布呈极强的负相关,即凉山州少数民族(或彝族)集中分布区与生计资本的低值区基本相重合。3.农户生计资本存量与交通优势度之间呈强的正相关,与地形起伏度呈中度负相关。4.农户生计资本总量与农民人均纯收入之间呈极强的正相关。 |
| [21] | . 耕地比较效益低下引致耕地保护经济补偿成为破解耕地保护问题的客观选择,而影响经济补偿成败的关键因素之一在于补偿模式设计是否符合农户诉求,因此定量刻画农户生计资产差异对其补偿模式选择的影响便是补偿模式设计的核心。运用参与式农村评价法（PRA）对渝西方山丘陵3个样点村392户农户进行了实地调查,构建了农户生计资产六边形计量分析框架,运用灰色关联分析模型和Probit回归分析法对农户生计资产差异与补偿模式选择意愿间耦合关系的存在性和影响度进行了分析,并设计了差别化耕地保护经济补偿模式。研究结果表明：①农户生计资产存在属性差异和空间分异。农户生计总资产呈现由自给型纯农户到非农户递增的总体趋势,空间上存在海拔越高生计资产越低的趋势。②农户对耕地保护经济补偿模式的选择意愿存在随农户生计资产差异由＂成都模式＂向＂佛山模式＂过渡的趋势,不同地带农户模式选择意愿存在空间分异。③农户生计资产差异与耕地保护补偿模式选择间存在耦合关系,自然资产与农户模式选择意愿呈负相关,社会资产对农户的模式选择影响最小,金融资产对农户模式选择的影响较弱,人力资产和物质资产对农户决策均产生较显著影响,心理资产对农户的决策影响最为显著。④根据农户生计资产缺乏情况为7种类型农户设计了概念性的补偿模式体系,并就补偿方法、补偿依据、补偿标准和补偿资金来源问题进行了探讨。 . 耕地比较效益低下引致耕地保护经济补偿成为破解耕地保护问题的客观选择,而影响经济补偿成败的关键因素之一在于补偿模式设计是否符合农户诉求,因此定量刻画农户生计资产差异对其补偿模式选择的影响便是补偿模式设计的核心。运用参与式农村评价法（PRA）对渝西方山丘陵3个样点村392户农户进行了实地调查,构建了农户生计资产六边形计量分析框架,运用灰色关联分析模型和Probit回归分析法对农户生计资产差异与补偿模式选择意愿间耦合关系的存在性和影响度进行了分析,并设计了差别化耕地保护经济补偿模式。研究结果表明：①农户生计资产存在属性差异和空间分异。农户生计总资产呈现由自给型纯农户到非农户递增的总体趋势,空间上存在海拔越高生计资产越低的趋势。②农户对耕地保护经济补偿模式的选择意愿存在随农户生计资产差异由＂成都模式＂向＂佛山模式＂过渡的趋势,不同地带农户模式选择意愿存在空间分异。③农户生计资产差异与耕地保护补偿模式选择间存在耦合关系,自然资产与农户模式选择意愿呈负相关,社会资产对农户的模式选择影响最小,金融资产对农户模式选择的影响较弱,人力资产和物质资产对农户决策均产生较显著影响,心理资产对农户的决策影响最为显著。④根据农户生计资产缺乏情况为7种类型农户设计了概念性的补偿模式体系,并就补偿方法、补偿依据、补偿标准和补偿资金来源问题进行了探讨。 |
| [22] | . 随着草地退化和药材资源减少,青藏高原东部农牧民的生计受到了严重影响。农牧民如何利用生计资产实现生计多样化是该区域可持续发展面临的关键问题。实地调查采用PRA法,结合调查结果调整了生计资产评估指标,从样带尺度定量分析了高原东部高山峡谷区、山原区和高原区农牧民的生计资产现状、生计多样化特点和今后的生计策略。结果表明：①生计多样化是农牧民普遍采用的生计策略。高山峡谷区农牧民生计多样化水平较高,从事二三产业较多,普遍寻求发展型生计。而随着海拔升高,农牧民的生计多样化水平降低,从事的生计活动类型减少,发展型生计的比例也降低;②海拔较低的高山峡谷区和山原区,生计资产总值高,而海拔越高的高原区,生计资产总值较低,主要反映在人力资产和自然资产上;③居民所拥有的生计资产与生计多样化水平高度正相关;④农牧民近期仍基于生计资产改善生计策略;⑤高山峡谷区和山原区农牧民寻求发展型生计为高原区牧民提供了很好的借鉴。建议政府围绕生计多样化的制约因素进行投入,以提高牧民的能力,协助高原区牧民建立发展型生计。 . 随着草地退化和药材资源减少,青藏高原东部农牧民的生计受到了严重影响。农牧民如何利用生计资产实现生计多样化是该区域可持续发展面临的关键问题。实地调查采用PRA法,结合调查结果调整了生计资产评估指标,从样带尺度定量分析了高原东部高山峡谷区、山原区和高原区农牧民的生计资产现状、生计多样化特点和今后的生计策略。结果表明：①生计多样化是农牧民普遍采用的生计策略。高山峡谷区农牧民生计多样化水平较高,从事二三产业较多,普遍寻求发展型生计。而随着海拔升高,农牧民的生计多样化水平降低,从事的生计活动类型减少,发展型生计的比例也降低;②海拔较低的高山峡谷区和山原区,生计资产总值高,而海拔越高的高原区,生计资产总值较低,主要反映在人力资产和自然资产上;③居民所拥有的生计资产与生计多样化水平高度正相关;④农牧民近期仍基于生计资产改善生计策略;⑤高山峡谷区和山原区农牧民寻求发展型生计为高原区牧民提供了很好的借鉴。建议政府围绕生计多样化的制约因素进行投入,以提高牧民的能力,协助高原区牧民建立发展型生计。 |
| [23] | . |
| [24] | . 文章通过对干旱区社会经济结构、社会网络等调查，探讨气候变化导致干旱区家庭生计脆弱性的原因。借助空间回归模型，以新疆于田绿洲为研究区域，2000、2005、2010年为时间段，同时考虑社会经济结构和空间扩散因素，综合检验气候变化条件下，社会经济结构、地理位置差异、族群及相邻效应等因素对干旱区家庭生计脆弱性空间变化可能造成的影响。结果发现，家庭年均纯收入、家庭抚养比率、女性户主的家庭比例、仅以农业生产为主要经济来源的家庭比例等社会经济因素及空间相邻关系是影响干旱区生计脆弱度空间扩散的最主要原因。族群因素方面，维吾尔族对干旱区气候变化和环境演变更为适应。而不同的地理位置，如乡村和城市、绿洲和荒漠等则表现出不同的生计脆弱度空间聚集状态。 . 文章通过对干旱区社会经济结构、社会网络等调查，探讨气候变化导致干旱区家庭生计脆弱性的原因。借助空间回归模型，以新疆于田绿洲为研究区域，2000、2005、2010年为时间段，同时考虑社会经济结构和空间扩散因素，综合检验气候变化条件下，社会经济结构、地理位置差异、族群及相邻效应等因素对干旱区家庭生计脆弱性空间变化可能造成的影响。结果发现，家庭年均纯收入、家庭抚养比率、女性户主的家庭比例、仅以农业生产为主要经济来源的家庭比例等社会经济因素及空间相邻关系是影响干旱区生计脆弱度空间扩散的最主要原因。族群因素方面，维吾尔族对干旱区气候变化和环境演变更为适应。而不同的地理位置，如乡村和城市、绿洲和荒漠等则表现出不同的生计脆弱度空间聚集状态。 |
| [25] | . |
| [26] | . |
| [27] | . In the Greater Caucasus of the Republic of Georgia, proponents of a new ski tourism zone and long-term timber concessions claim that new wage opportunities will benefit households. These developments will also limit access to common-pool resources (CPRs). This study uses the sustainable livelihoods framework to identify the conditions under which a development strategy will improve livelihood outcomes in the region. Analysis of original household survey data, in-depth interviews, and field observation reveals that households depend on CPRs for a range of market and non-market benefits. Low-income households depend on CPRs for up to 60% of their total income. OLS regression estimates show that households in villages farthest from market centers have a higher income dependence on CPRs and are more likely to participate in forest use activities. A majority of households report that there are few available substitutes. To improve livelihood outcomes, a development strategy should secure access to market benefits from CPRs, or wage income must increase in proportion to lost CPR income and affordable substitutes must be provided. Access to non-substitutable components of CPRs must be secured, and the distribution of changes in access to natural capital and new wage opportunities must be accounted for. |
| [28] | . 61Environmental resources contribute a significant portion of household income and act as a means to reduce income inequality61Poor households are not to be blamed for environmental degradation as they are unable to undertake high-return activities61Promoting off-farm employment, education, and social networking reduces the extraction of environmental resources. |
| [29] | . 61The impact of environmental resource use on household welfare was investigated.61Across all households environmental resources provide up to 20% of household income streams.61Environmental resources are disproportionately used by the poor households.61Poverty incidence and poverty gap would increase without environmental income.61Income inequality would increase if environmental income was excluded. |
| [30] | . 78 Effect of three forest management regimes and wealth are investigated at the community level. 78 Higher incidence of land poverty is associated with lower forest access rates. 78 Higher incidence of land-rich households is associated with higher forest access rates. 78 Interaction term between incidence of land-poverty and co-management regime increases forest access rates for fodder collection and livestock grazing. 78 Co-management and traditional management regimes reduce access rates for fuelwood extraction. |
| [31] | . . |
| [32] | . This article uses a case study in Southeast China to demonstrate how the substantial changes in rural livelihoods have been driven by a combination of "pull" forces from external economic development, and "push" forces from local areas, leading to a shift in rural household economic activities: household outmigration and de-population of the countryside, changes in energy consumption, and most importantly, changes in land uses and eventually, ecological restoration. Such dramatic changes are becoming common across the Chinese countryside. It is pointed out that economic development has generally caused a deterioration of the environment at least at the early period of economic growth, but the positive impacts, especially in some ecosystem in rural areas, have become more apparent. |
| [33] | . Empirical work on the relationship between environmental stress and human migration has blossomed over the last 10 years. While such work has provided important insights into this relationship, there has been, to date, limited effort expended on generating a generalisable framework for apprehending such interactions. This paper seeks to address this deficit. Based on semi-structured interviews in two sending and four receiving areas in northern Ethiopia, it explores dominant mobility narratives among populations whose livelihoods are exposed to a range of environmental stresses. Analysis of these narratives corroborates findings from other empirical studies on the subject, highlighting how the impact of environmental stress on human mobility can only be understood within the context in which it occurs. To this end the paper attempts to generate a typology of interactions between environmental and non-environmental factors shaping mobility. The typology is based on four effects: additive, enabling, vulnerability and barrier effects. It is thought to provide a generalisable conceptual language which is capable of describing the role of environmental stress in mobility decisions and thereby offering a systematic means for thinking through the processes by which environmental stress impacts upon mobility. While the framework is hypothesised to be suitably generalisable to account for other contexts and other environmental stresses, this still needs to be tested. In addition it is acknowledged that the framework suffers from some major limitations. Most notable is reliance on a conceptually false distinction between environmental and non-environmental factors, and the inability to account for the non-environmental features which shape perceptions of migration. (C) 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. |
| [34] | . The water–energy–food nexus is being promoted as a conceptual tool for achieving sustainable development. Frameworks for implementing nexus thinking, however, have failed to explicitly or adequately incorporate sustainable livelihoods perspectives. This is counterintuitive given that livelihoods are key to achieving sustainable development. In this paper we present a critical review of nexus approaches and identify potential linkages with sustainable livelihoods theory and practice, to deepen our understanding of the interrelated dynamics between human populations and the natural environment. Building upon this review, we explore the concept of ‘environmental livelihood security’ – which encompasses a balance between natural resource supply and human demand on the environment to promote sustainability – and develop an integrated nexus-livelihoods framework for examining the environmental livelihood security of a system. The outcome is an integrated framework with the capacity to measure and monitor environmental livelihood security of whole systems by accounting for the water, energy and food requisites for livelihoods at multiple spatial scales and institutional levels. We anticipate this holistic approach will not only provide a significant contribution to achieving national and regional sustainable development targets, but will also be effective for promoting equity amongst individuals and communities in local and global development agendas. |
| [35] | . This paper reviews and synthesizes findings from scholarly work on linkages among rural household demographics, livelihoods and the environment. Using the livelihood approach as an organizing framework, we examine evidence on the multiple pathways linking environmental variables and the following demographic variables: fertility, migration, morbidity and mortality, and lifecycles. Although the review draws on studies from the entire developing world, we find the majority of microlevel studies have been conducted in either marginal (mountainous or arid) or frontier environments, especially Amazonia. Though the linkages are mediated by many complex and often context-specific factors, there is strong evidence that dependence on natural resources intensifies when households lose human and social capital through adult morbidity and mortality, and qualified evidence for the influence of environmental factors on household decision-making regarding fertility and migration. Two decades of research on lifecycles and land cover change at the farm level have yielded a number of insights about how households make use of different land-use and natural resource management strategies at different stages. A thread running throughout the review is the importance of managing risk through livelihood diversification, ensuring future income security, and culture-specific norms regarding appropriate and desirable activities and demographic responses. Recommendations for future research are provided. |
| [36] | . This paper presents results from a comparative analysis of environmental income from approximately 8000 households in 24 developing countries collected by research partners in CIFOR鈥檚 Poverty Environment Network (PEN). Environmental income accounts for 28% of total household income, 77% of which comes from natural forests. Environmental income shares are higher for low-income households, but differences across income quintiles are less pronounced than previously thought. The poor rely more heavily on subsistence products such as wood fuels and wild foods, and on products harvested from natural areas other than forests. In absolute terms environmental income is approximately five times higher in the highest income quintile, compared to the two lowest quintiles. |
| [37] | . 气候变化是21世纪人类面临的 最严峻挑战之一,加剧了许多国家和地区的脆弱性,人类如何适应气候变化已成为当前全社会普遍关注的话题.气候变化对以自然资源为生计基础的农业人口的影响 尤为显著,更好地理解农户对气候变化的适应机制和适应过程对于制定有效的适应政策非常重要.公众感知作为理解人文响应行动的基础,已为探明农户对气候变化 的适应机制和适应过程提供了一个新视角.本文基于国内外农户对气候变化的感知和适应的理论研究和实践进展,在分析气候变化对农户生计的影响、系统总结农户 面临的主要适应障碍的基础上,梳理了农户的气候变化感知与适应的关系,阐释了农户适应气候变化过程中的关键认知要素,介绍了农户对气候变化的感知与适应关 系分析框架,提出了农户对气候变化的感知与适应关系研究中应关注的关键问题. . 气候变化是21世纪人类面临的 最严峻挑战之一,加剧了许多国家和地区的脆弱性,人类如何适应气候变化已成为当前全社会普遍关注的话题.气候变化对以自然资源为生计基础的农业人口的影响 尤为显著,更好地理解农户对气候变化的适应机制和适应过程对于制定有效的适应政策非常重要.公众感知作为理解人文响应行动的基础,已为探明农户对气候变化 的适应机制和适应过程提供了一个新视角.本文基于国内外农户对气候变化的感知和适应的理论研究和实践进展,在分析气候变化对农户生计的影响、系统总结农户 面临的主要适应障碍的基础上,梳理了农户的气候变化感知与适应的关系,阐释了农户适应气候变化过程中的关键认知要素,介绍了农户对气候变化的感知与适应关 系分析框架,提出了农户对气候变化的感知与适应关系研究中应关注的关键问题. |
| [38] | . 气候变化是21世纪人类面临的最严峻挑战之一，加剧了许多国家和地区的脆弱性，对以自然资源为生计基础的农业人口的影响尤为显著，明确气候变化对农户生计的影响，对于制定有效的气候变化适应政策，增强农户的气候变化适应能力，减轻农村贫困人口生计脆弱性具有重要意义。目前，国内外围绕气候变化对农户生计影响开展了许多研究，主要集中在过去或当前气候变化对水资源、土地、农作物、病虫害、人类健康等农户生计资本的宏观影响以及局地或区域尺度上气候变化对农户生计策略选择的影响等方面。从发展趋势看，亟需开展气候变化对农户生计的影响机理及适应机制研究，建立合理的气候变化对农户生计影响的评估框架，加强对模拟、分析和预测气候变化及其与其他压力相结合对农户生计要素的可能影响进行广泛评估，科学把握农户生计对气候变化脆弱性的关键影响因素，这对人类科学地适应气候变化和促进人类福祉和恢复力的提升具有重大的科学价值和现实意义。 . 气候变化是21世纪人类面临的最严峻挑战之一，加剧了许多国家和地区的脆弱性，对以自然资源为生计基础的农业人口的影响尤为显著，明确气候变化对农户生计的影响，对于制定有效的气候变化适应政策，增强农户的气候变化适应能力，减轻农村贫困人口生计脆弱性具有重要意义。目前，国内外围绕气候变化对农户生计影响开展了许多研究，主要集中在过去或当前气候变化对水资源、土地、农作物、病虫害、人类健康等农户生计资本的宏观影响以及局地或区域尺度上气候变化对农户生计策略选择的影响等方面。从发展趋势看，亟需开展气候变化对农户生计的影响机理及适应机制研究，建立合理的气候变化对农户生计影响的评估框架，加强对模拟、分析和预测气候变化及其与其他压力相结合对农户生计要素的可能影响进行广泛评估，科学把握农户生计对气候变化脆弱性的关键影响因素，这对人类科学地适应气候变化和促进人类福祉和恢复力的提升具有重大的科学价值和现实意义。 |
| [39] | . 78 Effective responses to climate change require innovation. 78 The concept of social innovation highlights collective action in local climate adaptation. 78 Institutional and technological aspects of climate adaptation are inextricably interlinked. 78 Individuals adapt and practice innovation through complex interactions between institutions and actors at multiple scales. 78 Multi-level communication and institutional articulation is crucial to sustainable climate adaptation. |
| [40] | . Experts working on behalf of international development organisations need better tools to assist land managers in developing countries maintain their livelihoods, as climate change puts pressure on the ecosystem services that they depend upon. However, current understanding of livelihood vulnerability to climate change is based on a fractured and disparate set of theories and methods. This review therefore combines theoretical insights from sustainable livelihoods analysis with other analytical frameworks (including the ecosystem services framework, diffusion theory, social learning, adaptive management and transitions management) to assess the vulnerability of rural livelihoods to climate change. This integrated analytical framework helps diagnose vulnerability to climate change, whilst identifying and comparing adaptation options that could reduce vulnerability, following four broad steps: i) determine likely level of exposure to climate change, and how climate change might interact with existing stresses and other future drivers of change; ii) determine the sensitivity of stocks of capital assets and flows of ecosystem services to climate change; iii) identify factors influencing decisions to develop and/or adopt different adaptation strategies, based on innovation or the use/substitution of existing assets; and iv) identify and evaluate potential trade-offs between adaptation options. The paper concludes by identifying interdisciplinary research needs for assessing the vulnerability of livelihoods to climate change. 61Sustainable livelihoods analysis is combined with other frameworks to assess livelihood vulnerability to climate change.61The proposed framework identifies vulnerability to climate change and compares “no-regrets” anticipatory adaptation options.61It considers the exposure and sensitivity of ecosystem services to climate change as it interacts with other drivers of change.61The framework considers factors influencing the uptake of adaptations and potential trade-offs between adaptation options. Sustainable livelihoods analysis is combined with other frameworks to assess livelihood vulnerability to climate change. The proposed framework identifies vulnerability to climate change and compares “no-regrets” anticipatory adaptation options. It considers the exposure and sensitivity of ecosystem services to climate change as it interacts with other drivers of change. The framework considers factors influencing the uptake of adaptations and potential trade-offs between adaptation options. |
| [41] | . This study examined livelihood diversification and cropland use pattern in Keerma village,located in Jinchuan County,eastern Tibetan Plateau.Through stratified random sampling survey,participatory rural appraisal,investigation of households' plots and statistical methods,63 households and 272 cropland plots were systemically investigated and sampled.The results show:(1) Different types of household have variety livelihood strategies,portfolio and income.Livelihood diversification and introducing and expanding off-farm activities can be the future trend,whereas,adverse natural environment,socio-economic conditions and peasants' capabilities together affect sustainable livelihood and land use.(2) Each livelihood strategy has its own impact on land use,mainly affecting land use type and land use intensification level.(3) Diversification into off-farm activities could be the key of building sustainable livelihood and the essential approach of realizing sustainable land use in the region. . This study examined livelihood diversification and cropland use pattern in Keerma village,located in Jinchuan County,eastern Tibetan Plateau.Through stratified random sampling survey,participatory rural appraisal,investigation of households' plots and statistical methods,63 households and 272 cropland plots were systemically investigated and sampled.The results show:(1) Different types of household have variety livelihood strategies,portfolio and income.Livelihood diversification and introducing and expanding off-farm activities can be the future trend,whereas,adverse natural environment,socio-economic conditions and peasants' capabilities together affect sustainable livelihood and land use.(2) Each livelihood strategy has its own impact on land use,mainly affecting land use type and land use intensification level.(3) Diversification into off-farm activities could be the key of building sustainable livelihood and the essential approach of realizing sustainable land use in the region. |
| [42] | . 该文以大渡河上游壤塘县、马尔康县和金川县为例，在野外考察、农户调查、历史资料分析的基础上，利用遥感、地理信息系统等多种手段，研究了该区1950～2000年生计方式的时空格局和1967～2000年的土地利用／覆被变化过程。结果表明：在河谷区、中山区、林区和牧区，居民生计方式的演变具有不同的特点。随着生计方式的演变，大渡河上游具有多样的土地利用／覆被变化过程。1980年代以后，该区不同地带劳动力向二三产业的转移具有显著的差异，居民对环境退化具有不同的响应方式。该研究还表明，生态脆弱区社会经济发展和生态重建的关键在于改变居民的生计方式，促进劳动力向二三产业转移。 . 该文以大渡河上游壤塘县、马尔康县和金川县为例，在野外考察、农户调查、历史资料分析的基础上，利用遥感、地理信息系统等多种手段，研究了该区1950～2000年生计方式的时空格局和1967～2000年的土地利用／覆被变化过程。结果表明：在河谷区、中山区、林区和牧区，居民生计方式的演变具有不同的特点。随着生计方式的演变，大渡河上游具有多样的土地利用／覆被变化过程。1980年代以后，该区不同地带劳动力向二三产业的转移具有显著的差异，居民对环境退化具有不同的响应方式。该研究还表明，生态脆弱区社会经济发展和生态重建的关键在于改变居民的生计方式，促进劳动力向二三产业转移。 |
| [43] | . . |
| [44] | . . |
| [45] | . 针对农户生计非农化对耕地流转的影响,采用Logistic回归分析方法,对福建省长汀县358户农户生计非农化对耕地流转的影响进行了实证分析。研究结果表明:①农户生计非农化与耕地流出之间是一种正反馈关系,农户生计非农化有效促进了农户耕地的流出;②生计非农化诱致的农业劳动力缺乏以及较高的务农机会成本是农户耕地流出的直接原因;③生计非农化总体上对耕地流入起到抑制作用,其中,务农机会成本对农户耕地流入起到主导的抑制作用,而地租下降等因素对耕地流入起到促进作用,一定程度上缓解了高务农机会成本对耕地流入的影响。 . 针对农户生计非农化对耕地流转的影响,采用Logistic回归分析方法,对福建省长汀县358户农户生计非农化对耕地流转的影响进行了实证分析。研究结果表明:①农户生计非农化与耕地流出之间是一种正反馈关系,农户生计非农化有效促进了农户耕地的流出;②生计非农化诱致的农业劳动力缺乏以及较高的务农机会成本是农户耕地流出的直接原因;③生计非农化总体上对耕地流入起到抑制作用,其中,务农机会成本对农户耕地流入起到主导的抑制作用,而地租下降等因素对耕地流入起到促进作用,一定程度上缓解了高务农机会成本对耕地流入的影响。 |
| [46] | . 运用文献资料计量法和比较分析法对1984—2014年间国内外土地利用与农户生计的相关文献进行了梳理。研究结果表明：土地利用与农户生计的论文发表数量呈逐年增长趋势，研究主题日益多元化。研究内容主要围绕可持续生计分析框架，重点开展了土地利用变化与农户生计演变的驱动、土地利用变化下农户生计资产评价和农户生计策略响应等研究。未来土地利用与农户生计研究应努力探索农户生计理论的中国化、系统化；开展土地利用变化下农户生计风险的识别与评价；加强土地利用系统与农户生计系统的耦合关系分析；深化土地利用变化下农户生计状况的动态变化分析。 . 运用文献资料计量法和比较分析法对1984—2014年间国内外土地利用与农户生计的相关文献进行了梳理。研究结果表明：土地利用与农户生计的论文发表数量呈逐年增长趋势，研究主题日益多元化。研究内容主要围绕可持续生计分析框架，重点开展了土地利用变化与农户生计演变的驱动、土地利用变化下农户生计资产评价和农户生计策略响应等研究。未来土地利用与农户生计研究应努力探索农户生计理论的中国化、系统化；开展土地利用变化下农户生计风险的识别与评价；加强土地利用系统与农户生计系统的耦合关系分析；深化土地利用变化下农户生计状况的动态变化分析。 |
| [47] | . In a previous paper [McCusker, B., Carr, E.R., 2006. The co-production of livelihoods and land use change: Case studies from South Africa and Ghana. Geoforum 37 (5), 790–804], we argued that land use and livelihoods could best be understood as co-produced, where land use and livelihoods are not separate objects of knowledge related to one another through abstract processes, but different manifestations of social processes through which individuals and groups come to understand the challenges facing their everyday lives, the various resources available to them to negotiate these challenges, and the strategies by which they can conduct that negotiation. In this paper, we examine the theoretical basis for “co-production” with the goal of using this approach to inform development interventions. |
| [48] | . . |
| [49] | . 2007年9月国务院发布了“关于完善退耕还林政策的通知”，标志着“第二轮”退耕还林补偿阶段的开始，分析农户生计状况发生的变化以及退耕还林在其中所 产生的作用至关重要。本文引入国际惯用于分析生态工程影响的“可持续生计方法”(SustainableLivelihood Approach)和框架，利用2004年北京大学环境经济与政策小组在宁夏和贵州开展的退耕还林调研数据，采用配对的倍差法(Matched Differencein Difference regression)计量经济分析，识别退耕还林工程的实施对农户可持续生计的净影响。收入分析表明，退耕还林对农户的种植业收入产生显著的负面影响， 通过退耕还林补助得以补偿：林业和养殖业短期内难以成为种植业减少的替代收入来源：外出务工收入明显增加，但退耕还林在其中发挥的直接促进作用不显著。资 产积累是长期决定农户生计状况和发展的重要指标，但目前的中国西部贫困地区人力、物质、自然、社会和资金五种资产均有待长期发展。为了促使农户可持续生计 的获得，新一轮的退耕还林政策，除了实施直接补助外，需要更加关注促使农户资产和生计能力的加强和改善。 . 2007年9月国务院发布了“关于完善退耕还林政策的通知”，标志着“第二轮”退耕还林补偿阶段的开始，分析农户生计状况发生的变化以及退耕还林在其中所 产生的作用至关重要。本文引入国际惯用于分析生态工程影响的“可持续生计方法”(SustainableLivelihood Approach)和框架，利用2004年北京大学环境经济与政策小组在宁夏和贵州开展的退耕还林调研数据，采用配对的倍差法(Matched Differencein Difference regression)计量经济分析，识别退耕还林工程的实施对农户可持续生计的净影响。收入分析表明，退耕还林对农户的种植业收入产生显著的负面影响， 通过退耕还林补助得以补偿：林业和养殖业短期内难以成为种植业减少的替代收入来源：外出务工收入明显增加，但退耕还林在其中发挥的直接促进作用不显著。资 产积累是长期决定农户生计状况和发展的重要指标，但目前的中国西部贫困地区人力、物质、自然、社会和资金五种资产均有待长期发展。为了促使农户可持续生计 的获得，新一轮的退耕还林政策，除了实施直接补助外，需要更加关注促使农户资产和生计能力的加强和改善。 |
| [50] | . This study evaluates the labor response of rural households participating in the Grain-for-Green program in China, the largest payments for ecosystem services program in the developing world. Using a panel data set that we designed and implemented, we find that the participating households are increasingly shifting their labor endowment from on-farm work to the off-farm labor market. However, the effects vary depending on the initial level of human and physical capital. The results support the view that one reason why the participants are more likely to find off-farm employment is because the program is relaxing households' liquidity constraints. |
| [51] | . 78 Assessing predictability of future decision pathways in a socio-ecological setting. 78 Mathematical basis for the concept of historical contingency. 78 25% of investigated pastoralists in Morocco show indetermined characteristics. 78 Increasing availability of additional resources decreases predictability. |
| [52] | . 旅游发展对当地居民的生计具有重要影响,旅游与生计研究业已成为学术界关注的热点领域。以Web of science核心库中1994-2016年间收录相关主题的文献为基础,利用可视化软件CiteSpace和Carrot2对旅游与生计研究的前沿热点、知识基础和合作网络进行分析。研究发现,旅游与生计研究涉及多个学科,主要集中在生态、环境、管理和地理等学科领域;"乡村旅游"、"保护区旅游"、"文化旅游"、"海洋旅游"等是旅游与生计研究的热点议题;旅游与生计研究的知识基础主要包括"保护区管治"、"成本效益分析"、"乡村旅游"、"乡村发展"等研究领域。 . 旅游发展对当地居民的生计具有重要影响,旅游与生计研究业已成为学术界关注的热点领域。以Web of science核心库中1994-2016年间收录相关主题的文献为基础,利用可视化软件CiteSpace和Carrot2对旅游与生计研究的前沿热点、知识基础和合作网络进行分析。研究发现,旅游与生计研究涉及多个学科,主要集中在生态、环境、管理和地理等学科领域;"乡村旅游"、"保护区旅游"、"文化旅游"、"海洋旅游"等是旅游与生计研究的热点议题;旅游与生计研究的知识基础主要包括"保护区管治"、"成本效益分析"、"乡村旅游"、"乡村发展"等研究领域。 |
| [53] | . 新型城镇化在为乡村旅游发展带来重大机遇的同时也带来了新的要求和挑战。大力发展乡村旅游,科学引导乡村地域城镇化,是中国新型城镇化和乡村经济社会发展的重大现实需求和重要科学命题。通过对新型城镇化背景下乡村旅游的审视和反思,认为乡村旅游既面临环境质量下降、乡村文化受损、旅游同质竞争、整体品质不高、产业培育不足、资金人才短缺、运营模式落后、土地利用错位等现实困境,又面临着新形势下需深入研究的诸多复杂性理论问题。提出要响应新时期国家重大战略和乡村旅游的发展需求,重点关注新型城镇化背景下的乡村旅游特性、新型城镇化对乡村旅游的影响与互动机制、旅游引导的新型城镇化发展模式、乡村旅游文化与乡愁记忆的恢复与重构、乡村生态文明与乡村旅游的融合发展、乡村旅游空间结构优化及城乡旅游一体化空间格局与机制、乡村旅游产品开发与产业融合创新、乡村旅游社区参与及＂三农＂问题解决路径、乡村旅游运营管理与政策制度创新等科学问题。通过深化理论研究和强化实践应用,推动乡村旅游提质增效升级,引导具备条件的乡村走以旅游为导向的中国特色新型城镇化道路,实现城乡旅游互补和协调发展。 . 新型城镇化在为乡村旅游发展带来重大机遇的同时也带来了新的要求和挑战。大力发展乡村旅游,科学引导乡村地域城镇化,是中国新型城镇化和乡村经济社会发展的重大现实需求和重要科学命题。通过对新型城镇化背景下乡村旅游的审视和反思,认为乡村旅游既面临环境质量下降、乡村文化受损、旅游同质竞争、整体品质不高、产业培育不足、资金人才短缺、运营模式落后、土地利用错位等现实困境,又面临着新形势下需深入研究的诸多复杂性理论问题。提出要响应新时期国家重大战略和乡村旅游的发展需求,重点关注新型城镇化背景下的乡村旅游特性、新型城镇化对乡村旅游的影响与互动机制、旅游引导的新型城镇化发展模式、乡村旅游文化与乡愁记忆的恢复与重构、乡村生态文明与乡村旅游的融合发展、乡村旅游空间结构优化及城乡旅游一体化空间格局与机制、乡村旅游产品开发与产业融合创新、乡村旅游社区参与及＂三农＂问题解决路径、乡村旅游运营管理与政策制度创新等科学问题。通过深化理论研究和强化实践应用,推动乡村旅游提质增效升级,引导具备条件的乡村走以旅游为导向的中国特色新型城镇化道路,实现城乡旅游互补和协调发展。 |
| [54] | . Tourism has been increasingly used for, and directly linked with, rural poverty reduction in developing countries. However, the application, and to an extent the principles, of the widely used organising framework for considering poverty reduction, the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA), may not fit fully the tourism situation, and vice versa. Based on a review of the literature we first suggest that sustainable livelihoods for tourism should be viewed in a broader tourism context, rather than merely taking tourism as a development tool. Second, the SLA seeks household livelihood sustainability at the individual or household level, while tourism sustainability is often applied to the industry and destinations at wider, more macro level scales. Thus, a reconciliation of the tensions and opportunities between the SLA and tourism needs to be found. Third, tourism research has demonstrated local residents" increasing concern about participation in political governance associated with tourism development, with less participation jeopardising local people's assets from a livelihood perspective. Therefore, an additional concept of institutional asset (mainly community participation) needs to be incorporated within the SLA. Given the above understandings, a sustainable tourism livelihood was defined and a Sustainable Tourism Livelihoods Approach (STLA) is proposed. The potential applications of the STLA are discussed and future research is recommended. Keywords: sustainable livelihoods, rural development, poverty, tourism, sustainability, community participation ********** Although poverty is one of the most compelling challenges confronting humankind, there remains numerous issues when considering scale, form, and evaluation of response within the multiple poverty contexts. As the World Bank (1990, p. 29) points out, 'policies targeted directly to the poor can hardly succeed unless governments know who the poor are and how they respond to policies and to their environment'. Based on this understanding, the World Bank adopted different approaches to rural and urban poverty, respectively, in implementing projects towards poverty reduction. This article focuses on the rural poverty context because up to 75% of the world's poor are in rural populations, and mostly in the 'third world' (World Bank, 2008). Key economic activities aimed at rural poverty reduction continue to be primary industries including agriculture and fishing (Harriss, 1982; World Bank, 2008). While professionals tried to improve rural conditions through approaches to soil fertility improvement, land reform and advanced technology, these development approaches did little to alleviate rural poverty (Aziz, 1978; Schutjer & Stokes, 1984; World Bank, 2001, 2008). In the 1980s, a new approach to poverty reduction, sustainable livelihoods (SL) and the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA) was proposed (Conroy & Litvinoff, 1988). It emphasised holistic and integrated thinking about poverty reduction and rural development, and soon gained popularity among researchers, practitioners and developers (Chambers, 1992; Chambers & Conway, 1992; Department for International Development, 1999), while still typically being focused on agricultural practices (FAO, 2002; Larkin, 2004; Start & Johnson, 2004). Tourism is now the biggest and fastest growing industry in the world, having experienced enormous growth over recent decades (UNWTO, 2002). But only recently has tourism's potential of contributing to rural poverty reduction been widely recognised by... |
| [55] | . Functional and humanist perspectives relevant to counterurbanization studies are applied to examine the processes of growth and development of rural settlements affected by tourism. Based on a survey of tourism lodges located in several settlements in the Annapurna region of Nepal, this paper analyzes tourism-induced growth in such accommodations and its implications on changing characteristics. Results suggest the emergence of a hierarchical structure of rural settlements with core and peripheral traits. A normative classification of induced patterns defined by their development stage, size, and function is proposed. Historical, social, and economic influences on the transformation of rural settlements are discussed.RésuméTourisme et zones résidentielles rurales: la région Annapurna au Népal. On applique des perspectives fonctionnelles et humanistes pertinentes aux études de la contre-urbanisation pour examiner les processus de croissance et de développement des zones résidentielles rurales affectées par le tourisme. Basée sur une enquête des g?03tes de tourisme dans plusieurs zones résidentielles dans la région Annapurna du Népal, l’article analyse la croissance provoquée par le tourisme dans ce genre de logement et les implications pour les caractéristiques changeantes. Les résultats suggèrent l’émergence d’une structure hiérarchique des zones résidentielles rurales avec des caractéristiques fondamentales et périphériques. Une classification normative des modèles intentionnels selon leur étape de développement, ampleur et fonction est proposée. On discute des influences historiques, sociales et économiques sur la transformation des zones résidentielles rurales. |
| [56] | . 以旅游业为主要产业业态的乡村已经成为我国乡村发展转型的4种类型之一。显然,乡村旅游业的发展必然会对乡村农户能源消费模式产生深远的影响。研究以六盘山生态旅游区农户调查数据为基础,从农户人均能源消费总量、结构以及最终消费用途为切入点,探讨了乡村旅游诱导下农户家庭能源消费模式演变的问题。结果表明:在能源消费总量上,乡村旅游农户家庭人均能源消费显著增加,比传统农户高42.96%,达到707.35 kgce。在消费结构上,乡村旅游农户商品能源占主导地位,新型能源(太阳能)广泛采用,传统能源比重逐渐降低,三者的比例93.10 ∶5.15 ∶1.75,而传统农户比例是46.30 ∶0.48 ∶53.22。在能源最终用途上,乡村旅游农户生活用能(炊事、取暖、家电、交通、热水、照明)总量大幅度增加,而与传统农业生产耗能有关的饲养和农机耗能已基本消失。传统农户能源耗能仍局限于炊事、取暖、饲养等基本的生产生活方面,与生活享受相关的家电、照明、热水、交通仍处于较低水平。研究还表明,农户能源消费模式的转变主要受家庭生产方式、农户用能方式、农户人均收入以及主观认知等因素的影响。在乡村旅游发展诱导下,六盘山生态旅游区乡村家庭农户能源消费正经历着由内向型"生活—生产系统"内部自循环模式向外向型"生活—旅游系统"外部输入型模式的转变。 . 以旅游业为主要产业业态的乡村已经成为我国乡村发展转型的4种类型之一。显然,乡村旅游业的发展必然会对乡村农户能源消费模式产生深远的影响。研究以六盘山生态旅游区农户调查数据为基础,从农户人均能源消费总量、结构以及最终消费用途为切入点,探讨了乡村旅游诱导下农户家庭能源消费模式演变的问题。结果表明:在能源消费总量上,乡村旅游农户家庭人均能源消费显著增加,比传统农户高42.96%,达到707.35 kgce。在消费结构上,乡村旅游农户商品能源占主导地位,新型能源(太阳能)广泛采用,传统能源比重逐渐降低,三者的比例93.10 ∶5.15 ∶1.75,而传统农户比例是46.30 ∶0.48 ∶53.22。在能源最终用途上,乡村旅游农户生活用能(炊事、取暖、家电、交通、热水、照明)总量大幅度增加,而与传统农业生产耗能有关的饲养和农机耗能已基本消失。传统农户能源耗能仍局限于炊事、取暖、饲养等基本的生产生活方面,与生活享受相关的家电、照明、热水、交通仍处于较低水平。研究还表明,农户能源消费模式的转变主要受家庭生产方式、农户用能方式、农户人均收入以及主观认知等因素的影响。在乡村旅游发展诱导下,六盘山生态旅游区乡村家庭农户能源消费正经历着由内向型"生活—生产系统"内部自循环模式向外向型"生活—旅游系统"外部输入型模式的转变。 |
| [57] | . The Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) program in Botswana aims at achieving conservation and rural development. In the Okavango Delta, some communities are involved in tourism through CBNRM to improve their livelihoods. However, research has not adequately analyzed changes caused by CBNRM on traditional livelihood activities and lifestyles. This study, therefore, uses modernization theory to analyze changes on traditional livelihood activities and lifestyles caused by CBNRM at Sankoyo, Mababe and Khwai villages in the Okavango Delta. Using primary and secondary data sources, results indicate that CBNRM is causing a decline in traditional livelihood activities like subsistence hunting, gathering, crop and livestock farming. As a result, a modern cash economy has emerged. New livelihood activities done by communities include: employment in CBNRM projects, the sale of crafts to tourists and thatching grass to tourism lodges. Income derived from CBNRM affords households to build modern houses, buy foreign foods and household equipment like: four-burner gas stoves, kitchen utensils, and satellite televisions. Conversely, this causes a decline in the consumption of traditional foods and the use of huts and household utensils. CBNRM is thus a modernization tool since it is causing a transformation of traditional livelihood activities and lifestyles. However, even though changes in livelihood activities and lifestyles may be an indication of the dynamism of culture in study villages, sudden change and modernization may increase livelihood insecurity. As such, tourism planning should ensure that modernization is sensitive to traditional economic systems and the need for rural livelihood sustainability. |
| [58] | . 61This article analyses the effects of a conservation project on rural communities in Ghana.61Findings show limited consideration for local socio-cultural and political issues prior to the introduction of the conservation project.61As a result, there are widespread negative but limited positive effects in the local communities.61Understanding the socio-cultural and political context influencing rural livelihoods is necessary in conservation projects. |
| [59] | . Community-based tourism is often undertaken as a tool to accomplish rural development while reducing natural resource use, but research on household livelihoods suggests that tourism may substitute for or complement resource use activities depending on how households allocate a variety of assets. Drawing on intensive qualitative research and a household survey in communities with and without tourism operations in a protected area in southwest China, we examine impacts of tourism participation on non-timber forest product collection and livestock holdings. Impacts of tourism differ across resource uses and between tourism communities, due to specific ways tourism draws on labor and material inputs. Emerging commercial agriculture and off-farm labor simultaneously impact resource use, while tourism generates demand for labor and farm products from communities without tourism operations. The impacts of tourism on resource use depend on how tourism participation enters into asset allocation processes within particular social and biophysical landscapes |
| [60] | . . |
| [61] | . Tourism has been increasingly used for, and directly linked with, rural poverty reduction in developing countries. However, the application, and to an extent the principles, of the widely used organising framework for considering poverty reduction, the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA), may not fit fully the tourism situation, and vice versa. Based on a review of the literature we first suggest that sustainable livelihoods for tourism should be viewed in a broader tourism context, rather than merely taking tourism as a development tool. Second, the SLA seeks household livelihood sustainability at the individual or household level, while tourism sustainability is often applied to the industry and destinations at wider, more macro level scales. Thus, a reconciliation of the tensions and opportunities between the SLA and tourism needs to be found. Third, tourism research has demonstrated local residents" increasing concern about participation in political governance associated with tourism development, with less participation jeopardising local people's assets from a livelihood perspective. Therefore, an additional concept of institutional asset (mainly community participation) needs to be incorporated within the SLA. Given the above understandings, a sustainable tourism livelihood was defined and a Sustainable Tourism Livelihoods Approach (STLA) is proposed. The potential applications of the STLA are discussed and future research is recommended. Keywords: sustainable livelihoods, rural development, poverty, tourism, sustainability, community participation ********** Although poverty is one of the most compelling challenges confronting humankind, there remains numerous issues when considering scale, form, and evaluation of response within the multiple poverty contexts. As the World Bank (1990, p. 29) points out, 'policies targeted directly to the poor can hardly succeed unless governments know who the poor are and how they respond to policies and to their environment'. Based on this understanding, the World Bank adopted different approaches to rural and urban poverty, respectively, in implementing projects towards poverty reduction. This article focuses on the rural poverty context because up to 75% of the world's poor are in rural populations, and mostly in the 'third world' (World Bank, 2008). Key economic activities aimed at rural poverty reduction continue to be primary industries including agriculture and fishing (Harriss, 1982; World Bank, 2008). While professionals tried to improve rural conditions through approaches to soil fertility improvement, land reform and advanced technology, these development approaches did little to alleviate rural poverty (Aziz, 1978; Schutjer & Stokes, 1984; World Bank, 2001, 2008). In the 1980s, a new approach to poverty reduction, sustainable livelihoods (SL) and the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA) was proposed (Conroy & Litvinoff, 1988). It emphasised holistic and integrated thinking about poverty reduction and rural development, and soon gained popularity among researchers, practitioners and developers (Chambers, 1992; Chambers & Conway, 1992; Department for International Development, 1999), while still typically being focused on agricultural practices (FAO, 2002; Larkin, 2004; Start & Johnson, 2004). Tourism is now the biggest and fastest growing industry in the world, having experienced enormous growth over recent decades (UNWTO, 2002). But only recently has tourism's potential of contributing to rural poverty reduction been widely recognised by... |
| [62] | . . |
| [63] | . 生态退化对干旱区内陆河流域农业人口的负面影响非常显著，当前急需评估农户生计对生态退化的脆弱性，识别脆弱群体及脆弱性成因，并依此寻求降低生计脆弱性的对策措施。以石羊河中下游为研究区，基于366户农户调查数据，分析了不同类型农户对生态退化的暴露度、敏感性及适应能力，评估了农户生计对生态退化的脆弱性，探明了影响农户生计对生态退化脆弱性的关键因素。结果表明：（1）高收入及高文化程度农户的适应能力强，暴露度与敏感性高，生计脆弱性较低；（2）从纯农户到非农户、从单一生计农户到多种生计农户，适应能力依次增强，暴露度与敏感性递减，生计脆弱性降低；（3）改善生态环境质量，提高农户的富裕水平、受教育程度及社会资本，促进生计转型能够显著降低农户生计对生态退化的脆弱性。最后，提出了减轻农户生计脆弱性的对策建议及未来需进一步关注的问题。 . 生态退化对干旱区内陆河流域农业人口的负面影响非常显著，当前急需评估农户生计对生态退化的脆弱性，识别脆弱群体及脆弱性成因，并依此寻求降低生计脆弱性的对策措施。以石羊河中下游为研究区，基于366户农户调查数据，分析了不同类型农户对生态退化的暴露度、敏感性及适应能力，评估了农户生计对生态退化的脆弱性，探明了影响农户生计对生态退化脆弱性的关键因素。结果表明：（1）高收入及高文化程度农户的适应能力强，暴露度与敏感性高，生计脆弱性较低；（2）从纯农户到非农户、从单一生计农户到多种生计农户，适应能力依次增强，暴露度与敏感性递减，生计脆弱性降低；（3）改善生态环境质量，提高农户的富裕水平、受教育程度及社会资本，促进生计转型能够显著降低农户生计对生态退化的脆弱性。最后，提出了减轻农户生计脆弱性的对策建议及未来需进一步关注的问题。 |
| [64] | . This paper develops and tests the application of a Livelihood Vulnerability Index (LVI) for agricultural and natural resource-dependent communities in developing countries. The index is applied in a comparative study of two wetland communities in Trinidad and Tobago, a country that is expected to bear some of the most severe impacts of climate change. Our application of the LVI entailed a series of critical focus group discussions involving local community representatives, government officials and researchers. Researchers collected household data for eight types of assets, which were aggregated into composite LVIs and differential vulnerabilities of the two communities being compared. The results of the analysis suggest that one of the communities, "Nariva", was more vulnerable than the other, "Caroni", particularly in relation to socio-demographics, health and water security, natural disaster and climate variability. Caroni on the other hand was more vulnerable in relation to other LVI indicators with the exception of food security. On questions of gender, the study found that female-headed households were marginally more vulnerable than male-headed households. Overall, the study suggests that the livelihood vulnerability index can be broadly applied in comparable settings in small-island developing states and other developing countries. In so doing, it provides a reliable methodology that can be used to assess community vulnerability and design management plans in areas with limited resources and access to reliable data. (C) 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. |
| [65] | . 在理论层面上,本文在效用理论基础上对脆弱性进行了定义并对其分解以反映消费的不平等性和波动性。在实证分析层面上,本文使用CFPS(Chinese Family Panel Studies)数据对中国农村家庭脆弱性进行量化与分解。量化结果表明多数农村家庭是脆弱的;分解结果发现相对于村间不平等,村内不平等是脆弱性的主要组成部分。家庭脆弱性及五个分解部分对家庭特征集合变量的OLS回归结果表明:增加农村家庭收入是降低其脆弱性最有效的手段;提高劳动力平均受教育水平能够有效降低家庭脆弱性,但大学教育支出会显著提高家庭的脆弱性水平,这较好地解释了目前出现的农村籍高中生弃考大学这一现象;新型农村合作医疗和社会保险能有效降低农村家庭脆弱性;社会资本、更大的家庭规模和更高的劳动力占比有利于降低家庭脆弱性,这能较好地解释中国农村家庭频繁的送礼活动以及倾向于组建大家庭的现象。 . 在理论层面上,本文在效用理论基础上对脆弱性进行了定义并对其分解以反映消费的不平等性和波动性。在实证分析层面上,本文使用CFPS(Chinese Family Panel Studies)数据对中国农村家庭脆弱性进行量化与分解。量化结果表明多数农村家庭是脆弱的;分解结果发现相对于村间不平等,村内不平等是脆弱性的主要组成部分。家庭脆弱性及五个分解部分对家庭特征集合变量的OLS回归结果表明:增加农村家庭收入是降低其脆弱性最有效的手段;提高劳动力平均受教育水平能够有效降低家庭脆弱性,但大学教育支出会显著提高家庭的脆弱性水平,这较好地解释了目前出现的农村籍高中生弃考大学这一现象;新型农村合作医疗和社会保险能有效降低农村家庭脆弱性;社会资本、更大的家庭规模和更高的劳动力占比有利于降低家庭脆弱性,这能较好地解释中国农村家庭频繁的送礼活动以及倾向于组建大家庭的现象。 |
| [66] | . We developed the Livelihood Vulnerability Index (LVI) to estimate climate change vulnerability in the Mabote and Moma Districts of Mozambique. We surveyed 200 households in each district to collect data on socio-demographics, livelihoods, social networks, health, food and water security, natural disasters and climate variability. Data were aggregated using a composite index and differential vulnerabilities were compared. Results suggest that Moma may be more vulnerable in terms of water resources while Mabote may be more vulnerable in terms of socio-demographic structure. This pragmatic approach may be used to monitor vulnerability, program resources for assistance, and/or evaluate potential program/policy effectiveness in data-scarce regions by introducing scenarios into the LVI model for baseline comparison. |
| [67] | . The issue of “measuring” climate change vulnerability and adaptive capacity by means of indicators divides policy and academic communities. While policy increasingly demands such indicators an increasing body of literature criticises them. This misfit results from a twofold confusion. First, there is confusion about what vulnerability indicators are and which arguments are available for building them. Second, there is confusion about the kinds of policy problems to be solved by means of indicators. This paper addresses both sources of confusion. It first develops a rigorous conceptual framework for vulnerability indicators and applies it to review the scientific arguments available for building climate change vulnerability indicators. Then, it opposes this availability with the following six diverse types of problems that vulnerability indicators are meant to address according to the literature: (i) identification of mitigation targets; (ii) identification of vulnerable people, communities, regions, etc.; (iii) raising awareness; (iv) allocation of adaptation funds; (v) monitoring of adaptation policy; and (vi) conducting scientific research. It is found that vulnerability indicators are only appropriate for addressing the second type of problem but only at local scales, when systems can be narrowly defined and inductive arguments can be built. For the other five types of problems, either vulnerability is not the adequate concept or vulnerability indicators are not the adequate methodology. I conclude that both the policy and academic communities should collaboratively attempt to use a more specific terminology for speaking about the problems addressed and the methodologies applied. The one-size-fits-all vulnerability label is not sufficient. Speaking of “measuring” vulnerability is particularly misleading, as this is impossible and raises false expectations. |
| [68] | . The rural population of semi-arid lands in Kenya face multiple challenges that result from population growth, poor markets, land use and climatic changes. In particular, subsistence oriented farmers face various risks and opportunities in their attempt to secure their livelihoods. This paper presents an analysis on how livelihood assets and strategies of smallholders in Laikipia County, Kenya, have changed within the last decade and discusses the implications for development interventions. The analysis is based on bi-temporal data from 170 semi-structured household interviews in 1997 and a follow-up survey of 30 households conducted in 2010. Well-being indicators were developed and livelihood portfolios compared. The results show a striking persistence in low asset endowment for the majority of smallholders from an aggregated perspective, whereas transitions into and out of better livelihood conditions become evident from a household perspective. The investment in, and accumulation of, conventional buffer or productive assets, such as grain stocks, livestock or land, does not shield households from adverse shocks and stresses as smallholders were shown to easily slip back into poverty. Household portfolios display particular constraints for smallholders in expanding natural resource related activities and a substantial decrease in livestock numbers. While off-farm activities could possibly increase well-being, the prevailing low income levels and high insecurity for the majority who are engaged in off-farm employment, limits the ability to increase livelihood assets in the area. |
| [69] | . 61The sustainable livelihoods framework is used to analyse livelihood strategy changes.61A classification tree is constructed to define six livelihood strategy types.61The mechanisms of livelihood transitions in the eastern coastal China are explored. |
| [70] | . 基于国内外脆弱性研究文献资料的回顾，对脆弱性研究的演进过程、研究现状与进展、面临的挑战进行了梳理与分析，指出了脆弱性研究对于推动地理学人地系统研究的借鉴意义。作为当前全球环境变化及可持续性科学领域的一种新的研究视角，脆弱性研究得到了地理学以及相关学科的广泛关注，呈现出跨学科、综合集成的研究趋势，在概念体系、分析框架、评价方法等方面研究进展丰富，但尚未在学科交叉融合的基础上形成独立完善的理论与方法论体系。随着脆弱性研究越来越关注人文与自然要素综合作用下的耦合系统脆弱性过程与机制，脆弱性研究在分析人地相互作用的尺度嵌套问题、促进人地系统研究的综合集成与学科交融、增强人地系统研究的实践指导方面具有重要的应用价值。 . 基于国内外脆弱性研究文献资料的回顾，对脆弱性研究的演进过程、研究现状与进展、面临的挑战进行了梳理与分析，指出了脆弱性研究对于推动地理学人地系统研究的借鉴意义。作为当前全球环境变化及可持续性科学领域的一种新的研究视角，脆弱性研究得到了地理学以及相关学科的广泛关注，呈现出跨学科、综合集成的研究趋势，在概念体系、分析框架、评价方法等方面研究进展丰富，但尚未在学科交叉融合的基础上形成独立完善的理论与方法论体系。随着脆弱性研究越来越关注人文与自然要素综合作用下的耦合系统脆弱性过程与机制，脆弱性研究在分析人地相互作用的尺度嵌套问题、促进人地系统研究的综合集成与学科交融、增强人地系统研究的实践指导方面具有重要的应用价值。 |
| [71] | . Cultivation, processing, and consumption of coffee are dynamic processes that connect coffee farmers and agro-ecosystems with coffee drinkers spanning the globe. As a cash crop, coffee cultivation gai |
| [72] | . Vulnerability is expected to differ based on climatic conditions as well as socio-economic attributes of farming households. In this regard, attention toward vulnerability assessments is increasing within policy-making processes, to assist in selecting suitable coping strategies and policies to reduce farmers vulnerability. Through identifying the main vulnerability indicators from a sustainability perspective (including social, economic, and environmental dimensions) among wheat farmers, this study is seeking an inclusive conceptual framework to assess their vulnerability to both socio-economic and environmental changes. Taking the main elements (i.e., sensitivity, exposure and adaptive capacity) of vulnerability into account, this paper tried to develop an inclusive systemic framework to understand the most important indicators of vulnerability for wheat farmers at various spatial and temporal scales. It is supposed that the framework is a useful guide for policymakers in identifying the vulnerable groups of wheat farmers and zones so that they can decide about proper coping strategies to effectively deal with adverse effects of climate and undesired socioeconomic changes in the wheat farming system. |
| [73] | . The coastal area of Bangladesh has been a focus of climate change and hazard research due to its extreme vulnerability to tropical cyclones, often leading to disaster. While there have been recent studies on the nature of these disasters, people's vulnerability and responses, little is known about how other key stresses, interacting with these extreme weather events, impact natural resources and the flow of ecosystem services that sustain local livelihoods. In this paper, we explore the process by which major stresses and hazards shape the vulnerability of people's livelihoods in dynamic social-ecological environments in the southwest coastal region of Bangladesh. Drawing on qualitative and quantitative data from a case study, we identify the key drivers of change in social-ecological systems and evaluate whether these drivers have affected livelihood outcomes and various components of human wellbeing. This analysis suggests that increasing salinity intrusion, tropical cyclone and land-use change (directly and through changes in ecosystem services) affect the access to livelihood assets at household scale. This undermines social wellbeing by seriously impacting food and water security. Through identification of key stresses and their interactions, and the consequent impacts on ecosystems services and household capitals, the current study proposes a conceptual framework to understand the present day vulnerability to multiple stressors in the context of the coastal region of Bangladesh. |
| [74] | . Smallholder farmers continuously confront multiple social and environmental stressors that necessitate changes in livelihood strategies to prevent damages and take advantage of new opportunities, or adaptation. Vulnerability, meaning susceptibility to harm, is attributable to social determinants that limit access to assets, leading to greater exposure and sensitivity to stressors and a limited capacity to adapt. Stressors and adaptation are intertwined because stressors deplete resources available for adaptation, while adaptation may erode resources available to respond to future stressors. We present empirical evidence demonstrating the interactions of multiple stressors and adaptations over time through a case study of indigenous farmers in highland Bolivia. We examine how farmers perceive the stress on their livelihoods, their strategies for adapting to these threats, and the influence of past adaptation and exposure on vulnerability under increasing climatic change. We find that vulnerability changes over time as multiple stressors, such as land scarcity and delayed seasonal rainfall, compound, simultaneously reducing access and demanding the expenditure of household assets for adaptation, including natural capital (water and land), human capital (including labor), and financial, physical, and social capital. To reduce vulnerability over time, constraints on access to key resources must be addressed, allowing households the flexibility to reduce their exposure and improve their adaptive capacity to the multiple stressors they confront. |
| [75] | . This paper describes an initiative to develop a model for understanding the multi-faceted nature and effects of vulnerability. The model is designed to enable analysis and assessment of interventions that address vulnerability, a concept that is widely used across disciplines and in development planning in Africa, particularly in southern Africa. The model is being developed to accommodate analyses of ‘multiple stressors’ and to identify the intersection and interaction of stressors in different contexts. Using three case studies related to vulnerability reduction and HIV/AIDS, we show how multiple processes interact and can influence the outcomes of vulnerability interventions in ways that may not be readily apparent when focusing on one stressor alone. |
| [76] | . 开展农户可持续生计研究,对于解决农村贫困问题,促进农村社会经济可持续发展具有重要意义。在查阅大量相关文献的基础上,本文首先阐述了可持续生计的概念,并对国外农户可持续生计研究概况进行了简介;然后从生计资产(资本)研究、生计脆弱性分析、生计策略研究、政策、机构和过程对农户生计影响研究、农户生计与生态环境的相互关系研究等5 个方面对近年来国内农户生计的主要研究进展进行了归纳总结。最后,提出了中国农户可持续生计研究的主要趋向:跨学科综合性、系统性研究,新技术方法的综合与动态研究,农户可持续生计与贫困问题研究,城乡转型期农户可持续生计研究,重点区域的农户可持续生计研究。 . 开展农户可持续生计研究,对于解决农村贫困问题,促进农村社会经济可持续发展具有重要意义。在查阅大量相关文献的基础上,本文首先阐述了可持续生计的概念,并对国外农户可持续生计研究概况进行了简介;然后从生计资产(资本)研究、生计脆弱性分析、生计策略研究、政策、机构和过程对农户生计影响研究、农户生计与生态环境的相互关系研究等5 个方面对近年来国内农户生计的主要研究进展进行了归纳总结。最后,提出了中国农户可持续生计研究的主要趋向:跨学科综合性、系统性研究,新技术方法的综合与动态研究,农户可持续生计与贫困问题研究,城乡转型期农户可持续生计研究,重点区域的农户可持续生计研究。 |
| [77] | . 10年来中国地理学研究领域发生了巨大变化,主要表现在大规模地参与了全球变化研究。本文阐述了全球变化的主要研究议题及地理****可能起到的作用,认为中国长期高速经济增长引起的环境变化比大气层增温的影响大得多,一系列与此有关的重大区域性问题应该得到地理****的广泛重视。文中还指出了地理****在全球变化研究中的值得注意的倾向。 . 10年来中国地理学研究领域发生了巨大变化,主要表现在大规模地参与了全球变化研究。本文阐述了全球变化的主要研究议题及地理****可能起到的作用,认为中国长期高速经济增长引起的环境变化比大气层增温的影响大得多,一系列与此有关的重大区域性问题应该得到地理****的广泛重视。文中还指出了地理****在全球变化研究中的值得注意的倾向。 |
| [78] | . Some 90% of the Guyanese population are at risk from contemporary flood hazard and the potential impacts of climate change and sea-level rise. Such risks are not the product of physical systems alone, and by using a political ecology frame the geography of flood hazard in urban environments can be seen to coevolve with political, social and economic systems. These systems are explored by a historical review which traces the roots of present vulnerability to the colonial experience, and an analysis of contemporary vulnerabilities which draws from a peri-urban and an urban case study. The case studies show that the current fashion in international donor agencies to fund ‘community sponsored development’ has missed an opportunity to enhance security through grassroots empowerment, and rather that those community organisations associated with this system have been co-opted by political elites reproducing embedded distributions of power and vulnerability. |
| [79] | . Social science research on climate vulnerability tends to be limited to case studies in either industrial countries or in less-developed nations. The empirical study presented here takes a comparative approach across this divide by examining rural livelihoods on both sides of the United States exico border. Looking beyond single agricultural systems, crossing borders and listening to rural producers in this semi-arid environment offers a more complete picture of how differences in access to resources, state involvement, class and ethnicity result in drastically different vulnerabilities within a similar biophysical context. We distinguish between coping and buffering in examining adaptation strategies and place an emphasis on the historical context of vulnerability as a dynamic social process with socioeconomic and environmental consequences. |
