,1Effects of Subsoiling and Irrigation Frequency on Water Saving and Yield Increasing of Winter Wheat and Summer Maize in the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain
QIANG XiaoMan1, ZHANG Kai1, MI ZhaoRong2, LIU ZhanDong1, WANG WanNing1, SUN JingSheng,1通讯作者:
收稿日期:2017-07-3接受日期:2018-08-21网络出版日期:2019-02-13
| 基金资助: |
Received:2017-07-3Accepted:2018-08-21Online:2019-02-13
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强小嫚,E-mail：
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强小嫚, 张凯, 米兆荣, 刘战东, 王万宁, 孙景生. 黄淮海平原地区深松和灌水次数对冬小麦- 夏玉米节水增产的影响[J]. 中国农业科学, 2019, 52(3): 491-502 doi:10.3864/j.issn.0578-1752.2019.03.009
QIANG XiaoMan, ZHANG Kai, MI ZhaoRong, LIU ZhanDong, WANG WanNing, SUN JingSheng.
0 引言
【研究意义】黄淮海平原地区是中国重要的粮食生产基地,在保障国家粮食安全中具有十分重要的地位。该地区长期采用传统的冬小麦播前旋耕、夏玉米免耕播种的耕作模式,导致土壤耕层逐年变浅、犁底层逐渐变硬变厚,耕层质量日趋下降,造成土壤生产能力持续减弱。该地区降水量主要集中在夏玉米生长季（7—9月份）,冬小麦生长季主要采用传统地面灌溉等粗放式灌溉方式,水分利用效率低下,水资源浪费严重。不合理耕层结构及粗放的灌溉制度加剧了农业用水无法高效利用,已成为限制该地区粮食稳产高产的主要因素。因此,通过深松耕作措施打破犁底层,改善土壤结构、增强土壤蓄水能力、提高水分利用效率,是黄淮海地区的粮食生产重要农业技术之一,同时,研究深松耕作方式下配备的科学合理的灌溉制度,以期为该地区深松耕作的推广提供科学依据。【前人研究进展】前人研究表明,深松耕作能有效降低土壤容重及土壤紧实度、增加土壤通透性、提高土壤蓄水能力,提高产量及水分利用效率[1,2,3]。孔晓民等[4]研究表明,深松后耕层土壤容重较常规旋耕和免耕分别下降6.5%和8.8%,土壤紧实度分别下降25.6%和32.3%,产量分别增加4.3%和5.7%。尹宝重等[5]研究表明,海河低平原渠灌区深松处理较旋耕和深耕处理相比,明显提高20—80 cm土层土壤含水量,对降水和灌水的消耗比例显著高于其他处理,同时显著提高冬小麦产量及水分利用效率。MOHANTY等[6]研究表明,深松能打破犁底层,改善土壤的渗透性能,利于降水和灌溉水的接纳和蓄存能力,提高水分利用效率。王万宁等[7]研究表明,0—40 cm土层,深松处理较旋耕处理土壤容重降低了0.63%—3.85%,孔隙度提高了0.27%—3.67%,夏玉米产量提高了9.5%,水分利用效率提高了5.08%。SU等[8]在中国北部黄土高原地区连续6年试验研究表明,深松处理的水分利用利用效率明显高于旋耕和常规耕作处理。QIN等[9]研究表明,深松处理能增加降水入渗,提高土壤贮水能力。然而也有研究[10,11,12,13]指出深松后土壤容重无显著性变化,土壤水分蒸发加剧,甚至出现作物减产现象。这可能与深松时机有关,也可能因为缺乏与深松耕作方式相配套的灌水技术模式,具体结论和原因还有待进一步深入研究。【本研究切入点】黄淮海平原地区常年采用传统耕作结合大水漫灌灌溉方式,容易造成大量灌溉水无效蒸发或径流。传统耕作模式灌溉施肥后,上层土壤水分和养分充足,而犁底层紧实的土壤结构导致土壤水分和养分不能有效补充至深层土壤,不利于作物最优根系的构建,容易造成后期倒伏,不利于作物高产的形成,又不利于机械化收获。前人研究多测重研究单一的土壤耕作方式和土壤水分对土壤物理性状、土壤水分变化、产量及水分利用效率等的影响,极少探讨不同土壤耕作方式及灌溉技术对农田土壤性状、作物生长发育及水分利用效率等的交互作用。因此,制定科学合理的耕作方式并提出配套的灌溉技术模式,是该地区冬小麦-夏玉米节水高产栽培的关键技术之一。【拟解决的关键问题】本研究通过2年试验,研究冬小麦播前深松-夏玉米免耕播种、冬小麦播前旋耕-夏玉米播前深松及冬小麦播前旋耕-夏玉米免耕播种（CK）3种耕作方式与作物不同关键生育期灌水次数的组合模式对田间土壤理化性质、土壤贮水能力、作物产量形成及水分生产效率等的影响,提出有利于作物高产稳产及水资源高效利用的耕作模式及其配套的灌溉技术,为推进节水型社会建设、保障粮食安全的耕作方式及灌溉模式进行示范和推广提供科学依据。1 材料与方法
1.1 试验区概况
试验于2015年10月至2017年9月在河南省新乡市获嘉县（35.29°N、113.64°E,海拔78 m）进行。该地区属于典型黄淮海平原地区,多年平均气温14.6°C,无霜期221 d,日照时数2 058.4 h,多年平均降雨量为574.5 mm。2015年10月至2017年9月试验期间月降雨量见图1,可知,2016年为丰水年,深松后第一季冬小麦-夏玉米生育周期（2015年10月至2016年9月）共降雨880.5 mm,较长期（1951—2015年）平均降雨量（574.5 mm）高53.3%,冬小麦季节降雨量为184.8 mm,夏玉米季节降雨量为695.7 mm,夏玉米生育关键期降雨充沛,故该季夏玉米无需进行灌溉。2017年为平水年,深松后第2季冬小麦-夏玉米生育周期（2016年10月至2017年9月）降雨量为522.9 mm,较长期平均降雨量低9.0%,冬小麦季节降雨量为246.9 mm,夏玉米季节降雨量为276.0 mm。试验地土质为砂壤土,田间持水量为25.6%,0—1 m土层的土壤理化性质为：pH 8.74,土壤电导率为193.47 μS·cm-1。0—40 cm土层碱解氮含量为48.68 mg·kg-1,速效磷为15.19 mg·kg-1,速效钾为97.15 mg·kg-1,有机质为8.5 g·kg-1。图1
新窗口打开|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT图12015—2017年试验期间月降雨量
Fig. 1Monthly precipitation at the study site during 2015-2017
1.2 试验设计
供试冬小麦和夏玉米品种分别为矮抗58和登海605。冬小麦播种量为225 kg·hm-2,行距25 cm。底肥采用三环复合肥料（N-P2O5-K2O：15-15-15总养分≥45%）,施肥量为750 kg·hm-2,种、肥同播,拔节期畦灌追施“心连心”尿素（总氮≥46.4%）375 kg·hm-2。夏玉米种植密度为6.7万株/hm-2,株距25 cm,行距60 cm,底肥采用“登海605”缓控释玉米专用掺混肥料（N-P2O5-K2O：27-8-5总养分≥40%）900 kg·hm-2,种、肥同播,期间无追肥。试验为裂区试验设计,主因素为耕作方式,设冬小麦播前深松—夏玉米免耕播种（秋深松,QS）、冬小麦播前旋耕—夏玉米播前深松（夏深松,XS）和冬小麦播前旋耕—夏玉米免耕播种（旋耕,CK）3种耕作水平;副因素为冬小麦灌水次数,根据该项目组近几年在冬小麦、夏玉米节水灌溉试验中采取的灌水技术为参考,设为：冬小麦2水（冬灌+拔节水）、冬小麦3水（冬灌+拔节水+孕穗水）共2个灌水水平,以旋耕+冬小麦灌2水作为对照处理,共5个处理,每个处理重复3次,分别为：秋深松+冬小麦2水（QS-2）、秋深松+冬小麦3水（QS-3）、夏深松+冬小麦2水（XS-2）、夏深松+冬小麦3水（XS-3）、对照（CK）。2016年夏玉米季降雨比较充沛,夏玉米全生育期无需灌水,2017年结合当季降雨情况,夏玉米生育期共灌水2次（出苗水+拔节水）。灌水式为畦灌灌水方式,灌水定额为90 mm。畦田规格设为3 m×50 m,共15个小区。
秋深松时间为2015年10月（冬小麦播种前）,夏深松时间为2016年5月（夏玉米播种前）,深松深度为35 cm,深松周期为2年深松1次。旋耕深度为15 cm。深松机采用山东大华机械有限公司的大华宝来1S-250型深松机,深松铲为全方位弧面倒梯型,同时作业行数为4行,铲间距62 cm,工作幅宽250 cm。旋耕机采用河北双天机械制造有限公司的1GKN-220A1型中高箱旋耕机。前茬作物收获后秸秆全量粉碎还田,各处理其他田间管理措施相同。
1.3 测定项目与方法
1.3.1 土壤容重测定 冬小麦、夏玉米成熟期,各处理挖取1 m×1 m×0.6 m的长方体坑,采用环刀法（体积为100 cm3）分别测定0—50 cm土层土壤容重,每10 cm为一层,每处理重复3次。1.3.2 土壤紧实度 冬小麦、夏玉米成熟期采用土壤紧实度仪（Sc?900 Soil Compaction Mate）测定各处理畦首（畦长1/5处）、畦中（畦长1/2处）、畦尾（畦长4/5处）处土壤紧实度,测定深度为0—50 cm,每处理重复3次。
1.3.3 土壤含水量 冬小麦、夏玉米各个生育期采用土钻取土烘干法测定田间土壤含水量,测定深度为0—100 cm,每20 cm为一层,采用精度为0.01 g的电子天平称称取湿土重和干土重。灌水和降雨前后加测一次。
1.3.4 植株生长发育指标 冬小麦、夏玉米各生育期内,每个小区随机选取5株长势均一无病虫害的植株于各个生育阶段定期观测株高和叶面积,测量时采用精度为0.1 cm的钢尺量取株高（最顶叶完全伸展至茎基部距离）和每片叶长、叶宽;另选取长势均一、无病虫害的植株测量地上生物量,测量时采用0.01 g电子天平称取每部分（茎、叶、穗）干物质,105℃杀青30 min,75℃烘干至恒重测定干物质重量。每个处理重复3次。
1.3.5 产量 冬小麦成熟后,每小区随机选取1 m×2 m样方进行收获,籽粒风干后称重计产;夏玉米成熟后,每小区收获2 m双行果穗,籽粒风干后称重计产。每处理重复3次。
1.3.6 田间耗水量 田间耗水量采用水量平衡法[14,15]计算,见公式（1）：
ET=I+P+U-Rf-D+（W0-Wt） （1）
式中,ET为阶段耗水量（mm）;I为时段内净灌水总量（mm）;P为时段内总降雨量（mm）;U为时段内地下水补给量（mm）,由于试验地地下水位较深,一般在5.0 m以下,作物无法吸收利用,故认为可忽略地下水补给,即U≈0;Rf为时段内地表径流量（mm）,由于试验区地势平坦,故无地表径流产生,Rf≈0;D为时段内根区的深层渗漏量（mm）,其计算方法为灌水（或降雨）前100 cm土层内有效土壤含水量（mm）+灌水量（或降雨量,mm）-田间持水量（mm）;W0、Wt分别为时段初期和时段末期的土壤储水量（mm）。
1.3.7 水分生产效率 作物水分生产效率（Water Productivity,WP）等于作物经济效益与作物耗水量的比值[16],见公式（2）：
WP=E/ET （2）
式中,WP为水分生产效率（元/m3）;E为冬小麦和夏玉米总的经济效益（元）;ET为田间总实际耗水量（mm）。
1.4 数据统计分析
运用Excel和DPS软件对试验数据进行统计分析,采用LSD法进行差异显著性比较（α=0.05）。2 结果
2.1 不同耕作方式及水分处理对田间土壤容重的影响
分别于2016年和2017年冬小麦-夏玉米连作系统结束时观测田间土壤容重,结果见表1。分析可知,深松后第1年QS-2、XS-2和XS-3处理较CK相比均显著降低了0—40 m土层土壤容重,40—50 cm土层各处理无显著性差异。0—40 m土层中,QS-2处理土壤容重较CK降低5.3%（P<0.05）、XS-2处理较CK降低5.9%（P<0.05）、XS-3处理较CK降低4.8%（P<0.05）,QS-3处理与CK相比各土层土壤容重有所降低,但差异不显著。说明采用秋深松和夏深松耕作方式结合适宜的灌水次数在深松后第1年均不同程度降低了土壤耕层0—40 cm土层土壤容重。2017年结果为,QS-2、XS-2和XS-3处理较对照相比均显著降低了0—20 cm土层土壤容重,20—40 cm土层容重有所降低,差异不显著,QS-3处理各土层土壤容重与CK比较接近,无显著性差异。表明秋深松且冬小麦灌3水对土壤容重的影响小于其他深松处理,原因可能是过多的灌水导致耕层土壤板结,也可能是土壤容重测定过程存在的误差导致,具体原因还有待进一步试验研究确定。总体看来,深松处理第1年土壤耕层土壤容重显著降低,第2年土壤容重的影响效果减弱。Table 1
表1
表1不同耕作方式和水分处理对土壤容重的影响
Table 1
| 年份 Year | 处理 Treatments | 土层 Soil layer | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0-10 cm | 10-20 cm | 20-30 cm | 30-40 cm | 40-50 cm | ||
| 2016 | QS-2 | 1.35b | 1.38b | 1.39b | 1.42b | 1.47a |
| QS-3 | 1.38ab | 1.42a | 1.48a | 1.48a | 1.52a | |
| XS-2 | 1.36b | 1.37b | 1.38b | 1.39b | 1.48a | |
| XS-3 | 1.35b | 1.38b | 1.39b | 1.45ab | 1.53a | |
| CK | 1.42a | 1.45a | 1.48a | 1.50a | 1.53a | |
| 2017 | QS-2 | 1.39b | 1.40b | 1.43a | 1.48a | 1.49a |
| QS-3 | 1.43a | 1.45a | 1.49a | 1.50a | 1.51a | |
| XS-2 | 1.39b | 1.41b | 1.46a | 1.47a | 1.47a | |
| XS-3 | 1.40b | 1.41b | 1.48a | 1.51a | 1.54a | |
| CK | 1.45a | 1.46a | 1.49a | 1.52a | 1.55a | |
新窗口打开|下载CSV
2.2 不同耕作方式及水分处理对田间土壤紧实度的影响
表2为2016年和2017年冬小麦-夏玉米连作系统结束时不同土壤耕层土壤紧实度变化情况,可知,2016年深松处理整体上显著降低0—40 cm土层土壤紧实度,其中,QS-2、QS-3、XS-2和XS-3分别较对照降低34.1%、31.3%、40.4%及37.5%。40—50 cm土层各处理无显著性差异。2017年各处理在各土层均较CK相比偏小,但差异不显著。表明,深松耕作方式能有效降低深松后第1年冬小麦-夏玉米连作系统农田土壤紧实度,为作物根系生长发育创造了适宜的土壤环境,对第2年土壤紧实度影响不明显。Table 2
表2
表2耕作方式和灌溉模式对土壤紧实度的影响
Table 2
| 年份 Year | 处理 Treatments | 土层 Soil layer | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0-10 cm | 10-20 cm | 20-30 cm | 30-40 cm | 40-50 cm | ||
| 2016 | QS-2 | 395b | 736b | 1007b | 1151b | 1558a |
| QS-3 | 320b | 712b | 1142b | 1249b | 1499a | |
| XS-2 | 286b | 556b | 925b | 1207b | 1425a | |
| XS-3 | 256b | 655b | 1012b | 1195b | 1529a | |
| CK | 680a | 1137a | 1521a | 1651a | 1789a | |
| 2017 | QS-2 | 625a | 1236a | 1386a | 1593a | 1669a |
| QS-3 | 620a | 1112a | 1258a | 1469a | 1578a | |
| XS-2 | 559a | 1189a | 1406a | 1520a | 1702a | |
| XS-3 | 656a | 1055a | 1456a | 1402a | 1689a | |
| CK | 696a | 1337a | 1620a | 1689a | 1896a | |
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2.3 不同耕作方式及水分处理对土壤储水量的影响
图2为不同耕作方式及水分处理下冬小麦田间土壤水分动态变化过程（2017年）,可知,深松后第2年各处理0—100 cm土层土壤储水量均高于对照处理,灌水和降雨后,深松处理0—100 cm土层土壤储水量显著高于对照处理,冬灌和拔节期灌水1周后（12月24日、3月18日）,QS-2处理较CK土壤含水量显著提高,其次为QS-3处理,表明秋深松灌2水相比秋深松灌3水在第2年田间保水效果更好。抽穗期灌水1周后（4月22日）,QS-3处理土壤含水量较CK显著提高26.93%,XS-3处理较CK提高21.32%,这是由于抽穗期QS-3和XS-3处理均较其他处理多灌1次水,因此土壤储水量较高。整体可以看出,QS-2 处理整个生育期平均土壤储水量最高,较CK增加了18.14%,QS-3处理次之,整个生育期较CK增加了16.69%,XS-2和XS-3处理与CK处理无显著差异。表明,秋深松灌2水在第二季冬小麦生育期间仍然有利于土壤水分向深层蓄积,增加了下层土壤含水量。综合考虑耕作方式和灌水次数双重作用可知,深松处理使得土壤耕层土壤容重降低,孔隙度增大,当灌水次数适宜时,土壤水分入渗性能得以提高,能有效接受适度灌水,在冬小麦第二季仍具有提高土壤蓄水的能力。当灌水次数较多时,过多的灌水对土壤结构具有一定的影响,细土粒随水分入渗导致土壤容重增加,引起表层土壤板结,故秋深松冬小麦灌3水在冬小麦第二季土壤储水量并没有因为增加一次灌水而提高。图3为不同耕作方式及水分处理下夏玉米田间土壤水分动态变化过程（2017年）,可知,深松后第2年夏玉米季深松各处理0—100 cm土层土壤储水量均高于对照处理,灌水后差异较大,其他时期各处理差异不显著。苗期和拔节期灌水1周后（6月25日、7月27日）土壤储水量数据可知,灌水后深松各处理明显高于对照,其中XS-2、XS-3处理分别较CK提高24.7%、25.6%,差异显著。QS-2、QS-3处理分别较CK提高12.2%、18.0%,差异不显著。8月30日降雨40.5 mm,深松各处理含水量高于对照处理,各处理差异较小。表明,夏深松对第2年夏玉米田间土壤水分含量在灌水后影响较大,随着生育进程的推进,深松对土壤储水量的影响效果差异不明显。综合分析深松后第二季冬小麦和夏玉米农田土壤储水量可知,深松处理结合适宜的灌水次数对于土壤储水量的后效至少延续至第2年。
图2
新窗口打开|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT图2不同耕作方式和水分处理下冬小麦0—100 cm土层土壤含水量动态变化（2017）
Fig. 2Soil moisture dynamics of winter wheat with soil depth 100 cm for different subsoiling and irrigation schemes (2017)
图3
新窗口打开|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT图3不同耕作方式和水分处理下夏玉米0—100 cm土层土壤含水量动态变化（2017）
Fig. 3Soil moisture dynamics of summer maize with soil depth 100 cm for different subsoiling and irrigation schemes (2017)
2.4 不同耕作方式和水分处理对作物株高、叶面积和地上生物量的影响
秋深松处理显著增加了当季冬小麦灌浆期株高、叶面积及地上生物量含量（表3）。2016年QS-2和QS-3处理株高较CK分别增加了14.24%、27.86%,叶面积分别增加了35.61%、57.74%,地上生物量分别增加了19.29%、27.06%。XS-2处理在株高、叶面积及地上生物量方面与CK无显著差异,XS-3处理叶面积较CK显著增加24.46%,其他方面无显著差异。原因是夏深松在冬小麦收获后进行,深松耕作方式对前茬冬小麦生长指标的影响是不存在的,而XS-3处理比CK多1次灌水导致其在灌浆期叶面积较CK显著提高。秋深松第2年冬小麦灌浆期株高、叶面积及地上生物量有所提高,但较第1年效果减弱。2017年数据显示,QS-3处理在叶面积上较CK显著提高32.90%,与第1年相比有所降低。株高和地上生物量方面QS-2和QS-3处理较CK有所提高,差异不显著。XS-2和XS-3处理在叶面积和地上生物量方面均较对照显著提高,说明夏深松对后茬冬小麦的生长发育有积极促进作用。表明,秋深松能显著提高当季冬小麦生长发育,对第2年冬小麦生长发育影响效果减弱。夏深松能显著促进后茬冬小麦生长发育。Table 3
表3
表3不同耕作方式和水分处理对冬小麦灌浆期作物生长发育的影响
Table 3
| 年份 Year | 处理 Treatments | 株高 Plant height (cm) | 叶面积 Leaf area (cm2/plant) | 地上生物量 Aboveground biomass (t·hm-2) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2016 | QS-2 | 64.74a | 43.03a | 17.81a |
| QS-3 | 72.46a | 50.05a | 18.97a | |
| XS-2 | 53.98b | 35.65ab | 16.52b | |
| XS-3 | 60.87b | 39.49a | 16.91b | |
| CK | 56.67b | 31.73b | 14.93b | |
| 2017 | QS-2 | 71.58a | 48.10a | 18.05b |
| QS-3 | 72.29a | 52.68a | 18.18b | |
| XS-2 | 78.69a | 53.26a | 19.02a | |
| XS-3 | 75.29a | 56.67a | 19.98a | |
| CK | 63.82a | 39.64b | 15.69b |
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秋深松和夏深松处理与对照相比均显著增加了第1年夏玉米抽雄期叶面积和地上生物量的积累（表4）,夏深松影响效果强于秋深松处理。2016年XS-2和XS-3处理叶面积较CK分别增加了23.83%、25.28%,地上生物量分别增加了29.57%、33.28%。QS-2和QS-3处理叶面积分别增加了19.30%、17.90%,地上生物量分别增加了16.48%、18.45%。2016年夏玉米生育期降雨充沛,整个生育期不进行灌溉,深松处理对降雨的有效利用明显改善了田间土壤水分状况,促进了夏玉米植株的生长发育。夏深松第2年夏玉米抽雄期作物生长指标较CK有所提高,但较第1年效果减弱,其中XS-2和XS-3处理与CK相比叶面积和地上生物量表现出显著差异,秋深松对第2年夏玉米生长发育指标无显著影响。
Table 4
表4
表4不同耕作方式和水分处理对夏玉米抽雄期作物生长发育的影响
Table 4
| 年份 Year | 处理 Treatments | 株高 Plant height (cm) | 叶面积 Leaf area (cm2/plant) | 地上生物量 Aboveground biomass (t·hm-2) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2016 | QS-2 | 289.56ab | 7608.12a | 14.77a |
| QS-3 | 279.68ab | 7518.67a | 15.02a | |
| XS-2 | 269.04b | 7896.88a | 16.43a | |
| XS-3 | 298.61a | 7989.61a | 16.9a | |
| CK | 258.47b | 6377.21b | 12.68b | |
| 2017 | QS-2 | 277.62b | 6966.21b | 16.98b |
| QS-3 | 289.36a | 7236.98ab | 17.69b | |
| XS-2 | 288.99a | 7889.85a | 19.68a | |
| XS-3 | 291.58a | 7952.58a | 20.56a | |
| CK | 269.85b | 6789.22b | 15.69b |
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2.5 不同耕作方式及水分处理对作物产量、经济效益及水分生产效率的影响
不同耕作方式及水分处理下冬小麦及夏玉米产量、产出值及水分生产效率见表5。2016年数据显示,深松后第1年冬小麦-夏玉米总产出值表现为QS-3>QS-2>XS-2>XS-3>CK,QS-3、QS-2、XS-2、XS-3处理分别较CK提高27.53%、27.21%、18.17%、17.83%,各处理均与CK相比差异显著。水分生产效率表现为：QS-2>QS-3>XS-3>XS-2>CK,QS-2、QS-3、XS-3、XS-3处理分别较CK提高23.51%、19.48%、15.46%、14.52%,各处理均与CK相比差异显著。分析可知,秋深松QS-2处理较QS-3处理总产出值略高,夏深松XS-3处理较XS-2处理总产出值略高,均无显著差异,同等深松条件下并没有因为多灌1水而显著提高产量。2017年数据显示,深松第2年冬小麦-夏玉米总产出值表现为：XS-3>QS-2>XS-2>QS-3>CK,XS-3、QS-2和XS-2分别较CK提高19.57%、19.54%、18.50%,三者均与CK相比差异显著。水分生产效率表现为：QS-2>XS-2>XS-3>QS-3>CK,QS-2、XS-2和XS-3处理分别较CK提高18.84%、17.65%、15.35%,三者均与CK相比差异显著。秋深松对第2年冬小麦和夏玉米产量、总产出值及水分生产效率影响效果较第1年相比有所减弱。说明秋深松灌2水对2年冬小麦-夏玉米总产出值和水分生产效率方面有显著提高作用,夏深松对后茬冬小麦产量有明显促进作用,显著提高了第2年冬小麦-夏玉米总产出值及水分生产效率。Table 5
表5
表5不同耕作方式和水分处理下作物产量、经济效益及水分生产效率
Table 5
| 年份 Year | 处理 Treatments | 冬小麦产量 Winter wheat yield (kg·hm-2) | 夏玉米产量 Summer maize yield (kg·hm-2) | 总耗水量 Water consumption (mm) | 总产出值 Output (yuan/hm2) | 水分生产效率 Water productivity (yuan/m3) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2016 | QS-2 | 11310a | 10897a | 829.14 | 42317.20a | 5.10a |
| QS-3 | 12006a | 10006a | 859.28 | 42422.80a | 4.94a | |
| XS-2 | 8690b | 12620a | 830.70 | 39310.00a | 4.73b | |
| XS-3 | 9025b | 12089a | 821.56 | 39197.40a | 4.77b | |
| CK | 8190b | 9530b | 805.04 | 33266.00b | 4.13c | |
| 2017 | QS-2 | 10599a | 10803a | 820.23 | 40602.60a | 4.95a |
| QS-3 | 9928ab | 10578a | 850.27 | 38766.40ab | 4.56b | |
| XS-2 | 11011a | 10015a | 821.30 | 40248.20a | 4.90a | |
| XS-3 | 10285a | 11240a | 845.25 | 40611.00a | 4.80a | |
| CK | 8394b | 9586b | 815.40 | 33964.40b | 4.17b |
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3 讨论
深松利用深松铲疏松土壤,加深耕层而不翻转土壤,打破了犁底层,降低耕层土壤容重,提高了土壤孔隙度,进而改善了耕层土壤结构与通气状况[17],有效提高了土壤蓄水保墒能力[18,19]。李荣等[20]研究表明,深松结合不同覆盖方式能有效降低耕层土壤体积质量,增大土壤孔隙度。王万宁等[7]研究表明,冬小麦播前深松显著降低了后茬夏玉米苗期、拔节期0—40 cm土层土壤容重和土壤紧实度。翟振等[21]研究表明,犁底层破除2/3及完全破除犁底层能够显著降低10—30 cm土层土壤容重和穿透阻力。BORGHEI等[22]研究表明,深松不仅可以加深耕层,对土壤紧实具有良好的改良效应,还可以改善土壤通透性,提高土壤蓄水能力和水分利用效率。本研究表明,深松后第1年,冬小麦-夏玉米连作系统结束时QS-2、XS-2和XS-3处理较CK相比均显著降低了0—40 cm土层容重,深松后第2年QS-2、XS-2和XS-3处理较对照相比均显著降低了0—20 cm土层容重,20—40 cm土层容重有所降低,差异不显著,QS-3处理土壤容重对耕作措施的响应小于其他处理,与CK相比差异不显著。本研究同时表明,深松后第1年0—40 cm土层土壤紧实度显著降低,QS-2、QS-3、XS-2和XS-3分别较对照降低34.1%、31.3%、40.4%及37.5%,深松后第2年各处理均较CK偏小,但差异不显著。本研究认为,深松后第1年0—40 cm土壤耕层土壤容重和土壤紧实度显著降低,第2年后深松对土壤容重和土壤紧实度的影响效果减弱。主要原因是,深松打破了犁底层,改善了土壤结构,增加了土壤通透性,深松第1年后结合适宜的灌水次数能有效降低土壤容重和土壤紧实度,2016年夏玉米季强降雨导致土壤表层积水较多,土壤发生板结现象,因此深松第2年后土壤容重和土壤紧实度影响效果减弱。深松利用深松铲在土壤中划出条带性的深松沟,并不扰乱土层,加深耕层,疏松土壤,可有效改善土壤的渗透性,提高旱地蓄水保墒性能,进而提高产量和水分利用效率[23,24]。深松能打破犁底层,改善土壤的渗透性能和对降水的接纳和蓄存能力,提高旱地蓄水保墒性能和水分利用效率[25]。柏炜霞等[26]研究表明,免耕/深松轮耕处理0—200 cm土层土壤蓄水量较连续翻耕处理提高18.2 mm。本研究表明,秋深松冬小麦灌2水在第2季冬小麦生育期间仍然有利于土壤水分向深层蓄积,增加了下层土壤含水量。夏深松对第2年夏玉米田间土壤水分含量在灌水后影响较大,其他时期影响较小。这是由于深松耕作方式结合适宜的灌水次数能有效改善土壤结构,使得水分在短时间内下渗到深层并储存,避免了灌溉水的无效蒸发和径流的发生。因此其贮水能力较好。
深松耕作通过改善土壤结构,提高土壤耕层土壤蓄水量,促进了作物生长发育及干物质积累能力,进而提高了产量和水分利用效率[27]。王红光等[28]研究表明,较其他耕作模式,深松+条旋耕有助于提高小麦开花至成熟期的干物质积累量、穗粒数和水分利用效率。李华等[29]研究表明,深松可有效打破犁底层,显著改善土壤物理结构,有利于作物根系下扎,促进作物生长发育,有利于玉米的高产稳产。本研究表明,秋深松和夏深松均能显著提高第1年冬小麦和夏玉米生长发育,第2年冬小麦和夏玉米生长发育影响效果减弱。秋深松灌2水对2年冬小麦-夏玉米总产出值和水分生产效率方面有显著提高作用。夏深松对后茬冬小麦产量有明显促进作用,显著提高了第2年冬小麦-夏玉米总产出值及水分生产效率。这是由于夏深松在夏闲期打破了犁底层,相比传统耕作措施有利于提高夏闲期土壤对降水的保蓄[30],提高了冬小麦播前的土壤墒情,有利于冬小麦产量的形成。朱文新等[31]研究表明,深松和灌水次数均可显著提高春玉米产量,且相同灌水次数下深松处理提高春玉米产量1 786.48—1 827.30 kg·hm-2。本研究表明,秋深松和夏深松均提高了周年总耗水量,同时随着深松条件下灌水次数的增多,耗水量也随之增加,深松条件下适宜的灌水次数能显著提高水分生产效率。本研究表明,秋深松灌2水在第1年显著提高总产出值和水分生产效率,同时该处理第2年在总产出值和水分生产效率方面亦表现出明显优势。
本研究在该地区气候条件下特定的耕层结构下展开,对于不同气候条件或不同耕层结构结果可能会产生差异,因此本研究结果只适应于该地区气候条件下的耕作措施,并不是各种情况下的普适性结论。
4 结论
黄淮海平原地区冬小麦-夏玉米一年两熟种植模式,在平水年和丰水年（夏玉米季降雨充沛）气候条件下,采用冬小麦播前秋深松耕作方式,冬小麦生育期灌水2次,可显著降低深松周期内连作系统第1年0—40 cm土层土壤容重及土壤紧实度,第2年影响效果减弱;提高了农田土壤储水量,促进了作物生长发育并显著提高作物产量和水分生产效率,其中,第1年总产出值和水分生产效率分别较CK提高27.21%、23.51%,第2年分别提高19.54%、18.84%。该地区特定气候条件下,冬小麦-夏玉米连作系统中,采用秋深松耕作方式,冬小麦灌2水,夏玉米视该季节降雨情况灌0—2水的灌溉耕作模式,可达到节水增产高效的目的。参考文献 原文顺序
文献年度倒序
文中引用次数倒序
被引期刊影响因子
DOI:10.1080/01448765.2008.9755058URL [本文引用: 1]
Appropriate tillage practices and mulch application are needed for sustainable crop production without affecting soil physical health and the environment. Tillage and mulch effects were studied on maize for two years from 2002 to 2003. Crop grain yield and growth parameters including plant height, dry biomass, 1000-grain weight and soil physical properties (water use efficiency, bulk density, total porosity and field saturated hydraulic conductivity) were measured. Maize yields and growth components were significantly affected by tillage and mulch application. Taller plants, greater dry biomass, grain yield and grain weight were obtained under tilled (minimum, conventional and deep tillage) than ZT (zero tillage) plots. Similar trends were found regarding mulch application. Tillage and mulch significantly affected soil physical properties in most cases except for soil bulk density which was not affected by tillage in both years. Total porosity, soil Kfs and WUE were significantly and positively affected by both tillage and mulch as higher values were observed under tilled and mulched plots compared with ZT and without mulch. Maize shoot N concentration was not affected by tillage in both years, whereas mulch effect on shoot N was significant in only one year.
URL [本文引用: 1]
Abstract Cotton is highly susceptible to soil compaction. Subsoiling affectively alleviates compaction and recovers soil productivity. A study was conducted to evaluate the effect of subsoiling on soil physical properties as bulk density and penetration resistance as well as cotton yield. Three soil tillage treatments viz S0: moldboard plow (conventional tillage), S1: 30-35 cm subsoiling followed by moldboard plow, and S2: 50-55 cm subsoiling followed by moldboard plow were randomized in complete block design with four replicates. Results indicated that subsoiling created significant effect on percentage of cone penetration decrease within depths of 10-20 and 20-50 cm (P
[本文引用: 1]
[本文引用: 1]
[本文引用: 1]
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DOI:10.1016/j.still.2006.06.002URL [本文引用: 1]
In Vertisols of central India erratic rainfall and prevalence of drought during crop growth, low infiltration rates and the consequent ponding of water at the surface during the critical growth stages are suggested as possible reasons responsible for poor yields () of soybean (), conventional tillage02+02subsoiling in alternate years using chisel plough (S), and conventional tillage02+02subsoiling in every year (S) as main plot. The subplot consisted of three nutrient treatments, viz., 0% NPK (N), 100% NPK (N) and 100% NPK02+02farmyard manure (FYM) at 402t02ha (N). S registered a significantly lower soil penetration resistance by 22%, 28% and 20%, respectively, at the 17.5, 24.5 and 31.502cm depths over S and the corresponding decrease over S were 17%, 19% and 13%, respectively. Bulk density after 15 days of tillage operation was significantly low in subsurface (15–3002cm depth) in S (1.3902mg02m) followed by S (1.4102mg02m) and S (1.5802mg02m). Root length density (RLD) and root mass density (RMD) of soybean at 0–1502cm soil depth were greater following subsoiling in every year. S recorded significantly greater RLD (1.0402cm02cm) over S (0.9202cm02cm) and S (0.6502cm02cm) at 15–3002cm depth under this study. The basic infiltration rate was greater after subsoiling in every year (5.6502cm02h) in relation to conventional tillage (1.8402cm02h). Similar trend was also observed in water storage characteristics (0–9002cm depth) of the soil profile. The faster infiltration rate and water storage of the profile facilitated higher grain yield and enhanced water use efficiency for soybean under subsoiling than conventional tillage. S registered significantly higher water use efficiency (1702kg02ha02cm) over S (1602kg02ha02cm) and S (1402kg02ha02cm). On an average subsoiling recorded 20% higher grain yield of soybean over conventional tillage but the yield did not vary significantly due to S and S. Combined application of 100% NPK and 402t farmyard manure (FYM) ha in N resulted in a larger RLD, RMD, grain yield and water use efficiency than N or the control (N). N registered significantly higher yield of soybean (151702kg02ha) over purely inorganic (N) (139202kg02ha) and control (N) (89802kg02ha). The study indicated that in Vertisols, enhanced productivity of soybean can be achieved by subsoiling in alternate years and integrated with the use of 100% NPK (3002kg N, 2602kg P and 2502kg K) and 402t FYM ha.
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DOI:10.1016/j.agwat.2006.08.005URL [本文引用: 1]
In the semi-humid to arid loess plateau areas of North China, water is the limiting factor for rain-fed crop yields. Conservation tillage has been proposed to improve soil and water conservation in these areas. From 1999 to 2005, we conducted a field experiment on winter wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.) to investigate the effects of conservation tillage on soil water conservation, crop yield, and water-use efficiency. The field experiment was conducted using reduced tillage (RT), no tillage with mulching (NT), subsoil tillage with mulching (ST), and conventional tillage (CT). NT and ST improved water conversation, with the average soil water storage in 0–200 cm soil depth over the six years increased 25.24 mm at the end of summer fallow periods, whereas RT soil water storage decreased 12 mm, compared to CT. At wheat planting times, the available soil water on NT and ST plots was significantly higher than those using CT and RT. The winter wheat yields were also significantly affected by the tillage methods. The average winter wheat yields over 6 years on NT or ST plots were significantly higher than that in CT or RT plots. CT and RT yields did not vary significantly between them. In each study year, NT and ST water-use efficiency (WUE) was higher than that of CT and RT. In the dry growing seasons of 1999–2000, 2004–2005 and the low-rainfall fallow season of 2002, the WUE of NT and ST was significantly higher than that of CT and RT, but did not vary significantly in the other years. For all years, CT and RT showed no WUE advantage. In relation to CT, the economic benefit of RT, NT, and ST increased 62, 1754, and 1467 yuan ha 611, respectively, and the output/input ratio of conservation tillage was higher than that of CT. The overall results showed that NT and ST are the optimum tillage systems for increasing water storage and wheat yields, enhancing WUE and saving energy on the Loess Plateau.
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Management practices that overcome low seedling survival and poor tree growth of well-drained, droughty sites can improve their productivity and profitability. This study was established to explore tree and stand growth trends, potential forest product yields, and land expectation values of loblolly pine on a droughty site in response to (1) seedling stock type, (2) subsoiling, and (3) stand density regime. In winter 1993, container (CONT) and bareroot (BARE) seedlings were planted with or without subsoiling at 746 trees per hectare (TPH). BARE seedlings were planted without subsoiling at 1,493 TPH to provide a comparison between low-density treatment combinations and a conventional (CONV) management regime for this site type. Tree growth was monitored periodically through age 13 years. Yield trajectories were estimated by predicting forest product yields with FASTLOB using age 13 years stand characteristics, and land expectation value was determined from revenue predictions and costs associated with each treatment. Low-density regimes that included CONT seedlings or subsoiling before BARE seedling planting improved tree growth through midrotation and had yield estimates comparable with that of a CONV regime. However, land expectation values associated with subsoiling were lower than those of low-density CONT and CONV regimes because of its cost and negligible benefits for seedling survival.
DOI:10.1016/j.still.2006.08.015URL [本文引用: 1]
Compacted subsoil may reduce plant root growth with resulting effects on plant uptake of water and nutrients. In organic farming systems subsoil loosening may therefore be considered an option to increase nutrient use. We investigated the effect of subsoil loosening with a paraplow to ca. 35 cm depth within a four-crop rotation in an organic farming experiment at Foulum (loamy sand) and Flakkebjerg (sandy loam) in Denmark. In each of the years 2000 2003, half of four plots per site were loosened in the autumn bearing a young grass-clover crop (mixture of Lolium perenne L., Trifolium repens L. and Trifolium pratense L.) established by undersowing in spring barley ( Hordeum vulgare L.). The grass-clover was grown for another year as a green manure crop and was followed by winter wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.), lupin ( Lupinus angustifolius L.):barley and spring barley in the following 3 years. On-land ploughing was used for all cereal and pulse crops. Penetration resistance was recorded in all crops, and the results clearly showed that subsoil loosening had effectively reduced the plough pan and that the effect lasted at least for 3.5 years. Measurements of wheat root growth using minirhizotrons at Foulum in 2002/2003 did not show marked effects of subsoil loosening on root frequency in the subsoil. Subsoil loosening resulted in reduced growth and less N uptake of the grass-clover crop in which the subsoil loosening was carried out, probably due to a reduced biological nitrogen (N) fixation resulting from a smaller clover proportion. This had a marked effect on the growth of the succeeding winter wheat. Negative effect of subsoil loosening on yield of winter wheat and spring barley was observed without manure application, whereas small positive yield effect of subsoil loosening was observed in crops with a higher N supply from manure. Yield decrease in winter wheat was observed in years with high winter rainfall. There was no significant effect of subsoiling on grain yield of the lupin:barley crops, although subsoiling had a tendency to increase crop growth and yield during dry summers. Our results suggest that subsoil loosening should not be recommended in general under Danish conditions as a measure to ameliorate subsoil compaction.
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DOI:10.1016/j.still.2004.05.007URL [本文引用: 1]
The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of different tillage operations on bulk density, and the hydraulic properties of a loamy sand soil of southwestern Nigeria. A replicated randomised complete block design with treatments consisting of (i) no-tillage (NT), (ii) manual tillage (MT), (iii) plough-plough tillage (PP) and (iv) plough-harrow (PH) operations established at the Teaching and Research Farm, Obafemi Awolowo University, Nigeria was used for the study. The soil bulk density, cone index of penetrometer resistance, saturated hydraulic conductivity and moisture retention characteristics were determined for each of the treatments. The cone penetration resistance was determined at the depths of 5, 10 and 15 cm while the soil moisture and suction relationship was determined on the surface (0–15 cm) soil at the suction of 4.5, 50, 100 and 150 kPa. The bulk density, penetration resistance and saturated hydraulic conductivity were determined weekly over a period of 8 weeks after tillage operations. All the tillage operations were significantly different in their effects on soil density and was in the descending order of NT > MT > PP > PH. The soil bulk density decreased with the degree of soil manipulation during tillage practices, with NT having the highest (1.28 g cm 613) and PH having the least (1.09 g cm 613). The soil bulk density also increased with increase in time after cultivation. The soil penetration resistance was consistent with bulk density data, with NT also having the highest resistance of 0.65 kg cm 612. Soil saturated hydraulic conductivity at 8 weeks after tillage decreased with increased intensity of soil manipulation by tillage. The highest conductivity was recorded under NT (7.2 × 10 613 cm s 611) and the least under PH (6.1 × 10 613 cm s 611). Regression analysis revealed a strong and positive correlation between soil saturated hydraulic conductivity and porosity within individual tillage treatments. The however weak relationship between conductivity and porosity when considered across all the tillage treatments indicates that total porosity is not the major determinant of saturated hydraulic conductivity in this soil. This was attributed to the disturbance of continuity of macropores under the conventionally tilled plots.
DOI:10.1016/j.agwat.2006.02.001URL [本文引用: 1]
Current global concerns on attainment of food security and poverty alleviation require new strategies with marked potential for water conservation and yield increase. This informed the design of an affordable continuous-flow drip irrigation system that applies the exact peak crop water requirement continuously throughout the 24 h of a day, and so maintains the crop root zone near field capacity all through the growth season. The design continuous-flow rate was nine drops of water per minute (0.03 l/h) for tomato used as test crop. The system was constructed from inexpensive off-the-shelf components, incorporating the medical infusion set as emitter. The drip system was evaluated in Bauchi State, Nigeria during the 2003/2004 and 2004/2005 irrigation seasons under four continuous-flow rates of 0.03, 0.05, 0.06, and 0.07 l/h against a bi-daily application as the control. The recorded yields were 42.9, 42.6, 44.4, and 44.4 t/ha, respectively for the four treatments and 22.3 t/ha from the control. The associated Water Use Efficiencies were 15.5 × 10 612, 10.7 × 10 612, 8.5 × 10 612, and 6.4 × 10 612 t/ha mm in same order for the four discharges, while that of the control was 10.1 × 10 612 t/ha mm. The continuous-flow drip schedule offered water savings of about 42.3 and 15.7% at 0.03 and 0.05 l/h, respectively over short level impoundment furrow irrigation widely used by resource-poor farmers in Nigeria. However, at the higher discharges of 0.06 and 0.07 l/h, the system rather applied 10.1 and 32.2% additional water over furrow irrigation. Results of this study summarily demonstrate promising prospects of the affordable continuous-flow drip irrigation system in delivering high crop yields especially if the crops are grown under appropriate agronomic practices that enable protraction of the growth season. The recommended range of continuous dripping for tomato is 0.03–0.05 l/h.
DOI:10.1016/j.agwat.2005.03.008URL [本文引用: 1]
This study was conducted to determine the most suitable irrigation frequency and quantity in cucumber grown under field conditions. The amount of water used was based on pan evaporation from a screened Class-A pan. Irrigation treatments consisted of two irrigation intervals ( I1: 4 and I2: 8 day), and three plant-pan coefficients ( K cp1: 0.50; K cp2: 0.75 and K cp3: 1.00). Plants were first watered at the transplanting date and scheduled irrigations were initiated after 4- and 8-day intervals. Irrigation quantities applied to the treatments varied from 320 to 509 mm; seasonal plant water comsumption or evapotranspiration of irrigation treatments varied from 391 to 597 mm; and the cuccumber yield varied from 17.99 to 45.20 ton ha 1. The highest total yield was obtained from I2 K cp3 treatment. Moreover, K cp3 treatments had the highest early yield. E t/ E pan ratio according to treatments ranged from 0.29 to 1.25. Irrigation treatments had significant effects ( P < 0.01) on yield and there were significant positive linear relations ( P < 0.01) between the fruit number and irrigation water and between the plant water compsumption and the yield. In conclusion, K cp3 treatment with 8-day-irrigation interval is recommended for cucumber grown under field conditions in order to get higher cucumber yield and to save time and labor. Furthermore, the E t /E pan equation of the best irrigation treatment ( I2 K cp3) of this study ( E t = 1.05 E pan + 96.72) should, therefore, be used in the scheduling irrigation programs in similar conditions.
DOI:10.1016/j.agwat.2008.06.008URL [本文引用: 1]
Scarcity of water resources and growing competition for water in many sectors reduce its availability for irrigation. Effective management of water for crop production in water scarce areas requires efficient approaches. Increasing crop water productivity (WP) and drought tolerance by genetic improvement and physiological regulation may be the means to achieve efficient and effective use of water. But only high water productivity values carry little or no interest if they are not associated with high or acceptable yields. Such association of high (or moderate) productivity values with high (or moderate) yields has important implications on the effective use of water. In this paper we discussed the factors affecting water productivity, and the possible techniques to improve water productivity. A single approach would not be able to tackle the forthcoming challenge of producing more food and fiber with limited or even reduced available water. Combining biological water-saving measures with engineering solutions (water saving irrigation method, deficit irrigation, proper deficit sequencing, modernization of irrigation system, etc.), and agronomic and soil manipulation (seed priming, seedling age manipulation, direct- or wet-seeded rice, proper crop choice, integrating agriculture and aquaculture, increasing soil fertility, addition of organic matter, tillage and soil mulching, etc.) may solve the problem to a certain extent. New scientific information is needed to improve the economic gains of WP because the future improvements in WP seem to be limited by economic rather than a lack of technological means.
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DOI:10.2136/sssaj2003.0859URL [本文引用: 1]
Potential benefits of subsoiling are difficult to predict. Objectives were to determine effect of subsoiling on water infiltration/storage and evaluate longevity of soil structure following tillage. Tillage treatments were no subsoiling (NoSS), subsoiled (SS), and subsoiled plus secondary tillage (SSplus). Soils were Dooley fine sandy loam (Exp 1) and Williams loam (Exp 2). Subsoiling (0.3 m deep) in Exp 1 was with a paratill and with parabolic subsoiling shanks in Exp 2. Secondary tillage (0.1 m deep) was with a disk (Exp 1) and with sweeps (Exp 2). Infiltration was measured using a sprinkler infiltrometer. Average final infiltration rate, after 2 simulated storms, was 14 mm/h on NoSS, 29 mm/h on SS, and 7 mm/h on SSplus. Penetration resistance measurements show that soil subsidence following simulated rainstorms was less on treatments with no secondary tillage. Average water drainage (1.83 m profile) was 1.4 mm/h during the first 3 days after water application. Subsequent drainage was 0.23 mm/h (days 3 to 7) and 0.09 mm/h (days 7 to 15). Soil profiles drained to about 444 mm of water in 15 days on all treatments. Results reveal a difficult soil management problem. Subsoiling initially improves water infiltration however, any gains in water storage were lost to deep drainage within 15 days. Excessive water infiltration and deep percolation of that water may represent a risk to ground water quality because soluble fertilizer salts, like nitrate-N, can be leached out of the root zone.
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Abstract Cotton is highly susceptible to soil compaction. Subsoiling affectively alleviates compaction and recovers soil productivity. A study was conducted to evaluate the effect of subsoiling on soil physical properties as bulk density and penetration resistance as well as cotton yield. Three soil tillage treatments viz S0: moldboard plow (conventional tillage), S1: 30-35 cm subsoiling followed by moldboard plow, and S2: 50-55 cm subsoiling followed by moldboard plow were randomized in complete block design with four replicates. Results indicated that subsoiling created significant effect on percentage of cone penetration decrease within depths of 10-20 and 20-50 cm (P
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