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北京市不同功能区不透水地表时空变化差异

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乔琨1,2,3,, 朱文泉1,2, 胡德勇3,, 郝明4, 陈姗姗3, 曹诗颂3
1. 北京师范大学地表过程与资源生态国家重点实验室,北京 100875
2. 北京师范大学地理科学学部遥感科学与工程研究院,北京 100875
3. 首都师范大学资源环境与旅游学院,北京 100048
4. 河北中核岩土工程有限责任公司,石家庄 050021

Examining the distribution and dynamics of impervious surface in different functional zones of Beijing

QIAOKun1,2,3,, ZHUWenquan1,2, HUDeyong3,, HAOMing4, CHENShanshan3, CAOShisong3
1. State Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Resource Ecology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
2. Institute of Remote Sensing Science and Engineering, Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
3. College of Resource Environment & Tourism, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China
4. Nuclear Industry of China Geotechnical Engineering Co. Ltd., Shijiazhuang 050021, China
通讯作者:通讯作者:胡德勇(1974-), 男, 湖南人, 博士, 教授, 主要研究领域为资源环境遥感、自然灾害遥感监测与评估。E-mail: deyonghu@163.com
收稿日期:2017-03-29
修回日期:2017-07-10
网络出版日期:2017-11-20
版权声明:2017《地理学报》编辑部本文是开放获取期刊文献,在以下情况下可以自由使用:学术研究、学术交流、科研教学等,但不允许用于商业目的.
基金资助:国家重点基础研究发展计划(2015CB953603)国家自然科学基金项目(41671339)地表过程与资源生态国家重点实验室资助项目(2017-FX-01(1))
作者简介:
-->作者简介:乔琨(1989-), 女, 河北人, 博士, 研究方向为资源环境遥感、植被遥感。E-mail: qiaoyingying2009@126.com



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摘要
目前有关北京市不透水地表的相关研究多数是从整体层面开展,忽略了其内部功能区的作用及差异。运用分类回归树(CART)及系列变化检测模型得到北京市1991年、2001年、2011年和2015年四期不透水地表分布,并运用标准差椭圆、洛伦兹曲线、贡献指数及景观格局理论对各功能区不透水地表的时空变化进行分析。结果显示:1991-2015年北京市不透水地表的总面积增加了约144.18%,分布的主导方向由早期的东北—西南趋向于当前的正北—正南。各功能区间不透水地表的空间分布异质性逐渐减弱,但贡献指数值存在很大差异:功能拓展区的贡献指数最高,其四年中的最低值(1.79)高于其他功能区四年最高值,是北京市不透水地表增长最主要的贡献区;功能核心区的蔓延度指数值最高,约为其他功能区的2倍,为不透水地表的优势聚集区;发展新区的贡献值由负值变为正值并成倍增长,成为北京市不透水地表增长的主要源区;生态涵养发展区的贡献指数始终为负,并逐年减小。不同类型不透水地表的景观指数和质心偏移均存在差异,高盖度不透水地表的形状指数和斑块密度值最小,分布最为集中,对生态环境影响较大,北京市在未来发展过程中应合理规划控制其空间格局及增长模式,尽量减缓其增长速度及团聚程度。

关键词:不透水地表;景观格局;CART;功能区;洛伦兹曲线;贡献指数;北京市
Abstract
IImpervious surface (IS) is often recognized as the indicator of regional ecosystems and environmental changes. Its spatio-temporal dynamics and ecological effects have been studied by many researchers, especially for the IS in Beijing municipality. However, most previous relevant studies examined Beijing as a whole without considering the differences and heterogeneity among the functional zones. In this study, the urban expansion in Beijing in some typical years (1991, 2001, 2005, 2011 and 2015) was analyzed by sub-pixel IS that obtained through the simulation of CART and change detection models. Then the spatio-temporal dynamics and variations of IS (1991, 2001, 2011 and 2015) in different functional zones and counties were analyzed based on the method of standard deviation ellipse, Lorenz curve, contribution index (CI) and landscape theory. It is found that the total area of impervious surface in Beijing increased dramatically from 1991 to 2015, increasing about 144.18%. The deflection angle of major axis of standard deviation ellipse decreased from 47.15° to 38.82°, indicating a trend that the major development axis in Beijing moved from the northeast-southwest orientation to the north-south orientation. Moreover, the heterogeneity of IS distribution in different counties weakened gradually but the CI values and landscapes in different zones differed greatly. Urban function extended zone (UFEZ) had the highest CI value, which means it played the most important role in the growth of IS in Beijing, and its lowest CI value was 1.79 during the study period, which is much greater than the highest CI values of other functional zones. Core functional zone (CFZ) contributed less than UFEZ, but it has the highest CONTAG value, showing a more connected IS landscape compared with other zones. The CI values of new urban developed zone (NUDZ) increased rapidly from 1991 to 2015, which increased from negative to positive and multiplied, indicating the NUDZ has become the main source for the growth of IS in Beijing gradually. However, the ecological conservation zone made a negative contribution at all times, and its CI value decreased constantly. In addition, the variations of landscape indices and centroids of impervious surface in different density classes indicate that the high-density impervious surface had a more compact configuration and a greater impact on the ecological environment.

Keywords:impervious surface;landscape metrics;CART;functional zones;Lorenz curve;contribution index;Beijing

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乔琨, 朱文泉, 胡德勇, 郝明, 陈姗姗, 曹诗颂. 北京市不同功能区不透水地表时空变化差异[J]. , 2017, 72(11): 2018-2031 https://doi.org/10.11821/dlxb201711008
QIAO Kun, ZHU Wenquan, HU Deyong, HAO Ming, CHEN Shanshan, CAO Shisong. Examining the distribution and dynamics of impervious surface in different functional zones of Beijing[J]. 地理学报, 2017, 72(11): 2018-2031 https://doi.org/10.11821/dlxb201711008

1 引言

2014年《国家新型城镇化规划》指出,中国百万人口以上的城市已达142个,其中千万人口以上的城市有6个,并预测到2020年中国常住人口城镇化率将达到60%左右[1]。城市是人类活动最为强烈的区域,随着城市化进程的不断加快,大量的自然地表不断被道路、高楼建筑等人工地表所替代[2-4],生态问题日益严重,城市下垫面性质的改变及其对生态环境的影响已经成为政府及****广泛关注的一个焦点。
不透水地表作为典型的城市下垫面类型,一般指水不能直接渗透到土壤中的人工地貌特征,包括道路、停车场、建筑物屋顶等[5-6]。不透水地表具有蓄热能力强、蒸散能力弱及阻碍气流传输等特点[7],对城市的能量辐射平衡、地表热环境、地表径流以及局地气候等都有很大的影响[8-12]。不透水地表覆盖度(Impervious Surfaces Percentage, ISP)是指单位面积地表中不透水地表面积所占百分比[13-15],其空间分布格局是对城市土地利用形态的一种连续化描述,能较好地反映出城市的变化形态和进程,而且ISP具有一定的稳定性,不易受季节、物候等其他外界因素的影响,是常用的城市生态环境考核指标之一。
北京作为中国政治、文化、国际交往和科技创新中心,是北方城市化水平最高的地区之一,近年来经历了快速的城市化进程。目前已有多位****针对北京市不透水地表时空变化及生态影响等进行了研究[16],肖荣波等和王静等分别用分类回归树(Classification and Regression Tree, CART)模型和V-I-S模型反演得到了北京市主城区不透水地表分布结果,发现其不透水地表表现出极强的空间梯度性,从市中心到郊区不透水地表盖度逐渐降低,不透水地表扩张面积和速度逐年增加[17-18]。崔耀平和Hao等基于Landsat系列数据和多期土地利用变化数据集,提取得到长时间序列的北京市不透水地表空间数据和地表温度数据,发现北京市主城区不透水地表主要沿环线扩展,不透水地表的比例是影响地表温度的主要因素,且不透水地表的增温作用要大于植被层的降温作用[19-20]。针对现有研究发现,此前的研究多数是从城市整体结构层面出发,针对北京市主城区来进行研究,忽略了北京市内部各功能区及区县的作用、差异和相互影响,不能够充分阐释北京市不透水地表的变化过程及发展模式。
此外,北京市同一功能区或不同功能区的不透水地表斑块有着不同的形状、组分类型以及空间形态,这些不同导致了不透水地表的异质性,会对城市环境产生影响[21-22]。要了解不透水地表的动态模式及其相互作用,准确地量化其空间景观格局是必要的。将景观格局理论与遥感技术相结合用于城市不透水地表的研究,有助于分析不同尺度下不透水地表格局的动态发展模式及其对生态环境的影响。但目前相关的研究基本上都是基于不透水地表“硬”分类结果,而极少涉及“软”分类[23-24],即基于亚像元结果来分析其景观格局。相比于“硬”分类方法得到的不透水地表,“软”分类结果的不透水地表结果能够提供更加丰富及真实的城市景观结构描述。
本文基于CART及系列变化检测模型提取1991年、2001年、2005年、2011和2015年北京市亚像元不透水地表数据,在此基础上主要对1991年、2001年、2011年和2015年不透水地表结果进行研究。首先分析了北京市整体及各功能区、区县的不透水地表时空分布特征和变化趋势,同时讨论了各功能区的贡献指数,明确各区的地位和作用;然后将连续的不透水地表盖度转换为离散的不透水地表类型,结合景观格局理论定量分析了北京市整体及各功能区不同百分比不透水地表景观的空间模式,以期为北京市城市规划和资源管理提供决策依据。

2 研究区和数据

2.1 研究区

北京市地处华北平原北部,位于39.4°N~41.6°N、115.7°E~117.4°E之间,地势自西北向东南倾斜,西北部为低山丘陵地带,东南部为平原地带。四季分明,地表植被冬枯夏荣,季相变化明显。全市总面积为16412 km2,其中主城区面积为1369 km2。近年,人口总数不断增加,城镇化水平逐年提高,到2015年北京市常住人口为2170.5万,其中城镇人口1877.7万,城镇化水平达到86.5%,城市化进程不断加快。
根据2005年发布的《中共北京市委北京人民政府关于区县功能定位及评价指标的指导意见》以及《北京城市总体规划(2004-2020年)》,北京市16个区县被划分为4类功能区(图1),分别是:① 功能核心区,是北京“四个服务”职能的主要承载区;② 城市功能拓展区,是北京面向全国和世界的高端服务功能的重要承载区,也是经济辐射力和控制力的主要支撑区;③ 城市发展新区,是北京经济未来发展的新增长极,也是高新技术产业的聚集区;④ 生态涵养发展区,是北京的生态屏障和重要水源保护地,为北京可持续发展提供保障。
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图1研究区示意图
-->Fig. 1Location of the study area and its functional zones
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2.2 数据

本文选取1991年(5月16日)、2001年(5月19日、8月31日)、2005年(5月6日、11月14日)以及2011年(6月8日)的Landsat 5 TM数据(分辨率为30 m),2015年(2月11日、9月7日)的Landsat 8 OLI数据(分辨率为30 m)作为城市不透水地表盖度提取的主要数据源。同时采用2005年同期覆盖研究区核心区的高分辨率遥感影像(QuickBird,分辨率为2.4 m)作为2005年不透水地表盖度估算中训练/测试样本获取的数据源。此外,本文还收集了1992年、2001年、2005年、2011年和2016年覆盖研究区的DMSP/OLS和VIIRS/NPP夜间灯光数据辅助预测,对上述数据进行了精确的几何配准和重投影,投影方式为UTM,坐标系为WGS-84,将DMSP/OLS和VIIRS/NPP夜间灯光数据用最近邻法重采样成与Landsat影像统一的分辨率30 m。

3 研究方法

3.1 不透水地表的提取

分类回归树(CART)模型是当前不透水地表提取中常用的一种方法,它是一种二分递归的决策树结构模型,可以有效处理大量、高维数据和非线性数据,并且对输入数据没有统计分布要求,允许连续变量或者离散变量的输入,因此有利于大范围不透水地表信息的提取。目前该方法已成为美国国家土地覆盖数据库(NLCD)中不透水地表提取的主要技术支撑[25],本文选择此方法来提取北京市不透水地表,主要包括三个步骤:① 对覆盖北京主城区的QuickBird遥感影像进行非监督分类,归并得到不透水地表二值分类结果。然后通过邻域统计得到空间分辨率为30 m的训练和测试样本;② 以2005年Landsat 5 TM影像的7个波段及对应的夜间灯光数据作为预测独立变量,以QuickBird影像统计得到的30 m分辨率不透水地表盖度数据作为目标变量,基于CART模型估算2005年北京市不透水地表盖度;③ 利用1991年、2001年、2011年Landsat 5 TM影像和2015年Landsat 8 OLI影像的7个波段和相关的夜间灯光数据,结合2005年不透水地表盖度结果,基于CART和系列变化检测模型估算对应年份的不透水地表盖度。在此建模过程中,样本数据的制备主要考虑到城市化进程大多是向前推进的,对应像元的不透水地表盖度大多会随着时间推进而增加,因而利用2005年不透水地表盖度数据和夜间灯光数据的组合,收集了高城市化区域的不透水地表盖度作为样本数据。
基于CART和系列变化检测模型估算的不透水地表盖度采用十折交叉验证的方式进行精度评价,也就是将样本数据首先分成10份,每次抽选出9份用于训练、1份用于验证,依次循环10次[25]。由于2005年有覆盖研究区核心区的QuickBird高分辨率遥感影像,因此首先对2005年的模型估算结果采用QuickBird影像提取得到的不透水地表盖度数据作为测试数据进行评估,其余年份则利用2005年不透水地表盖度数据和夜间灯光数据的组合,通过收集高城市化区域的不透水地表盖度作为测试数据(此处假定高城市化区域的不透水地表盖度在1991-2015年期间无变化或变化很小),并结合Google Earth高分辨率影像进行评价。

3.2 标准差椭圆和洛伦兹曲线

为了探讨北京市不透水地表的空间变化特征,运用标准差椭圆对其进行分析。标准差椭圆法是分析空间分布方向性特征的经典方法之一,反映的是空间要素组织的总体轮廓和主导分布方向,其中椭圆长短半轴长度反映空间格局总体要素的集中密度,偏角反映格局的主导方向[26],标准差椭圆各关键参数的计算见文献[27-28]
此外,运用洛伦兹曲线来分析北京市不透水地表格局的空间异质性变化。洛伦兹曲线是美国统计学家M Lorenz为研究财富、土地和工资收入是否公平而提出的,它利用频率累积数绘制成的曲线来刻画不平等(集中或分散)程度,能够直观的表现收入分配平等或不平等的状况[29]。洛伦兹曲线也可以按空间(地区)来绘制,所得结果能形象、直观地描述地理要素分布在地域空间上的集中化程度与异质性[30]

3.3 贡献指数

本文计算了各功能区的贡献指数值来定量分析其在北京市不透水地表发展过程中的作用,公式如式(1):
CI=(ISPFˉ-ISPˉ)×(SF/S)(1)
式中:CI为贡献指数; ISPFˉISPˉ分别代表各功能区和整个北京市不透水地表盖度的均值; SFS分别为各功能区和整个北京市的区域面积。

3.4 景观格局变化分析

通过计算面积加权质心和景观指数来分析北京市不透水地表景观格局的变化特征。空间质心分析主要用于研究不同盖度不透水地表景观的动态变化,景观指数用来反映不透水地表景观的结构组成和空间配置特征。其中景观水平的指数用于描述不透水地表的整体特征,选择常用的蔓延度指数(CONTAG);斑块类型水平的指数着重用于对亚像元级别各类型不透水地表特征进行分析,包括斑块密度(PD)和形状指数(LSI)。
CONTAG描述的是景观里不同斑块类型的团聚程度或延展趋势,CONTAG越高,斑块离散程度越低;PD表征景观被分割的破碎程度,反映其空间结构的复杂性,PD越大,破碎程度越高;LSI是斑块聚合或离散程度的量度,LSI越大,斑块越离散[31]
将北京市不透水地表景观按盖度值等间距划分为5类,作为景观格局分析的5种类型,分别是低盖度不透水地表(0 ≤ ISP ≤ 0.2)、中低盖度不透水地表(0.2<ISP ≤ 0.4)、中盖度不透水地表(0.4<ISP ≤ 0.6)、中高盖度不透水地表(0.6<ISP ≤ 0.8)和高盖度不透水地表(0.8<ISP ≤ 1.0)。

4 结果

4.1 北京市不透水地表空间格局总体变化

1991年、2001年、2011年和2015年北京市不透水地表盖度估算结果如图2所示。将2005年模型估算的不透水地表盖度与同年QuickBird高分辨率遥感影像提取得到的结果进行对比,其平均误差(AE)为12.8%、相对误差(RE)为0.39、相关系数(R)为0.86。其余年份的精度评估结果如表1所示,4个年份预测结果的AE在14.50%以内、RE在0.44以内、R均大于0.73。
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图2北京市不透水地表盖度空间分布
-->Fig. 2Spatial pattern of impervious surface percentage in Beijing
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Tab. 1
表1
表1不透水地表盖度结果精度验证
Tab. 1Accuracy assessment for impervious surface results
年份AE(%)RER
1991年10.400.430.73
2001年8.900.360.80
2011年8.600.440.76
2015年14.500.410.78


新窗口打开
1991年以来北京市不透水地表扩张明显(图2),呈单一核心的“摊大饼”式发展。1991年北京市不透水地表明显集中于功能核心区和功能拓展区,零星分布于发展新区。2001年不透水地表范围由中心区逐渐向四周辐散,发展新区开始出现小范围连续不透水地表。2011年,发展新区已成为不透水地表新的聚集区,不透水地表成片分布。2015年不透水地表范围继续扩大,盖度值明显升高。
不透水地表盖度与图斑面积乘积之和表示完全不透水地表面积,经统计可知1991年、2001年、2011年和2015年北京市完全不透水地表面积分别为714.69 km2、1109.65 km2、1429.77 km2和1745.13 km2,从1991年到2015年不透水地表面积增加了约144.18%,同时不透水地表盖度均值也增长明显,北京市不透水地表呈现快速递增的发展趋势。
从1991年到2015年标准差椭圆范围逐渐缩小且向北移动(图3),主轴方向偏转角从1991年的47.15°逐渐减小到2015年的38.82°(表2),表明北京市不透水地表空间分布总体上呈东北—西南方向主导的格局,但这种格局在逐渐弱化,有向正北—正南方向转变的趋势。
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图31991-2015年北京市不透水地表空间格局变化
-->Fig. 3The spatial pattern evolution of impervious surface in Beijing from 1991 to 2015
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Tab. 2
表2
表21991-2015年北京市不透水地表空间分布标准差椭圆参数变化
Tab. 2The variation of parameter values of standard ellipsed in Beijing from 1991 to 2015
年份偏转角(°)主轴半径(km)辅轴半径(km)
1991年47.1572.3749.42
2001年43.7973.3446.88
2011年40.0566.3744.69
2015年38.8260.1341.41


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从长短半轴长度变化(表2)来看,1991-2001年长半轴由72.37 km增长为73.34 km,短半轴由49.42 km减小为46.88 km,表明不透水地表在主轴方向上呈现弱离散化,在辅轴方向上出现极化;2001-2015年长半轴由73.34 km持续减小为60.13 km,短半轴由46.88 km减小为41.41 km,说明不透水地表在主轴方向上出现极化,在辅轴方向上进一步呈极化发展。

4.2 北京市各功能区不透水地表空间格局变化差异

1991-2015年,基于各区县不透水地表统计得到的洛伦兹曲线的弯曲程度在逐渐减缓(图4),说明北京市不透水地表在16个区县内的空间分布异质性在不断减弱。进一步探讨各功能区及区县对不透水地表的贡献作用(图5),功能拓展区的贡献指数最高且逐年增大,表明其不透水地表盖度均值远高于北京市不透水地表盖度均值,是北京市不透水地表最主要的贡献区;其次是功能核心区和发展新区,功能核心区不透水地表盖度均值虽然最高,但受限于其区域面积,贡献指数相对较小且变化不大,为北京市不透水地表第二主要贡献区;而发展新区不透水地表快速扩展,贡献指数逐年迅速增长,由负值变为正值并成倍增长,在逐步取代功能核心区的地位;最后是生态涵养发展区,贡献指数一直为负值,并逐年减小,表明虽然其不透水地表面积在逐渐扩大,但其不透水地表盖度均值始终远低于北京市不透水地表盖度 均值。
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图41991-2015年北京市不透水地表空间分布洛伦兹曲线
-->Fig. 4Spatial Lorenz curve in Beijing metropolitan region in 1991, 2001, 2011 and 2015
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图51991-2015年北京市各功能区及区县不透水地表贡献指数
-->Fig. 5Contributions of the functional zones and districts to the growth of impervious surface in Beijing
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从各区县之间的对比来看,区县间的贡献指数存在着很大的差异,以2015年为例,贡献指数值最大的是朝阳区,属于功能拓展区,贡献指数为1.21;贡献指数最小的是平谷区,属于生态涵养发展区,贡献指数为-1.15。此外,同一功能区内区县间的贡献指数也存在着一定的差异,只有功能核心区的两个区贡献指数值差别不大,比较稳定。但功能区内各区县的贡献指数年间变化趋势与功能区的变化趋势基本保持一致。

4.3 北京市各功能区不透水地表景观格局变化差异

4.3.1 质心变化 北京市各类型不透水地表一直都呈现以功能核心区为中心的集聚态势,其景观质心主要集中在西城区(属功能核心区)到朝阳区(属城市功能拓展区)之间的地带(图6)。1991-2015年,高盖度和中盖度不透水地表前期在东北方向增长较快,其质心先趋向于东北方向偏移,继而在北部增长较快,质心趋向于北方;中高盖度不透水地表质心的变化趋势为持续向东北方向偏移;中低盖度不透水地表质心1991-2001年向西南方向偏移,2001-2011年向东北方向偏移,2011-2015年向西北方向偏移;低盖度不透水地表质心的变化为先向南方偏移,再向西方偏移,继而向北,呈“U”型。2011-2015年质心偏移量明显大于其他年份,不透水地表的变化有明显的方向性,整体向北偏移,而2001-2011年质心偏移量最小,不透水地表的变化呈多方向性。
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图6北京市不透水地表景观空间质心演变
-->Fig. 6The migration of space centroids of impervious surface landscapes in Beijing
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4.3.2 不透水地表景观指数 北京市四个功能区中,功能核心区的蔓延度指数值始终最高(表3),为不透水地表聚集的优势区;其次是功能拓展区;最后是城市发展新区和生态涵养区,这两个区域不透水地表快速增长,其蔓延度指数值与功能拓展区蔓延度指数值差距在不断减小。随着时间的推移,功能核心区和功能拓展区的蔓延度指数均先逐渐减小再增大,其不透水地表的延展趋势和团聚程度逐渐减弱再增强;城市发展新区和生态涵养区的蔓延度指数一直在增大,两个功能区不透水地表景观的聚集程度不断增强。对于北京市整体而言,不透水地表景观的蔓延度指数波动较小,先减小后增加,前期主要是不透水地表向外扩展,新增不透水地表斑块增多,而后期主要是不透水地表景观斑块间的连通性增加。
Tab. 3
表3
表3北京市及各功能区不透水地表景观蔓延度指数
Tab. 3The CONTAG values of four functional zones and Beijing in 1991, 2001, 2011 and 2015
年份功能核心区功能拓展区城市发展新区生态涵养发展区北京
1991年31.7523.209.0410.6213.19
2001年31.2223.4111.0510.5213.42
2011年30.6419.5012.3512.3512.61
2015年36.9024.1716.0319.9615.72


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北京市功能核心区和功能拓展区不透水地表的LSI和PD均随着ISP的升高先递增再减小(图7图8),不透水地表景观的离散程度和破碎程度随ISP的升高先增强后减弱;城市发展新区和生态涵养区的LSI和PD大致呈递减的趋势,景观离散度和破碎程度随ISP的增加而减弱。四个功能区均是高盖度不透水地表的聚集度最强,结构比较单一、稳定(功能核心区低盖度不透水景观指数值偏低是因其面积较小)。北京市整体不透水地表景观的LSI和PD值随ISP的增加呈递减趋势,高盖度不透水地表的LSI和PD值远低于其他类型不透水地表。
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图72015年北京市及各功能区不同类型不透水地表景观形状指数
-->Fig. 7The landscape shape index values of different impervious surface types in four functional zones and Beijing in 2015
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图82015年北京市及各功能区不同类型不透水地表景观斑块密度
-->Fig. 8The patch density values of different impervious surface types in four functional zones and Beijing in 2015
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5 讨论

5.1 北京市不透水面的扩展及各功能区的贡献

1991-2015年是北京城市化、城镇化进程快速发展的阶段,其不透水地表范围及强度增长明显,不透水地表的优势聚集区逐步由功能核心区扩展到城市发展新区,呈“摊大饼”式的发展格局。多位****[18, 32-33]的研究在一定程度上也证实了这一结论,但以前研究多集中在城市整体不透水地表形态结构的时空变化方面,极少关注城市内部不同功能区不透水地表的动态及其作用[34]
本文分析发现,北京市四个功能区间不透水地表空间分布的异质性在逐渐减弱,而各功能区由于职能作用不同,在北京市整个不透水地表环境中扮演着不同的角色。功能核心区为不透水地表聚集的传统优势区,不透水地表盖度值较高,但由于其发展较早,又受到区域面积的限制[18, 35],不透水地表增幅较小,为北京市不透水地表增长的第二主要贡献区。功能拓展区不透水地表快速增长,其盖度均值远高于北京市整体,贡献指数值最高,是北京市不透水地表增长最主要的贡献区。发展新区作为北京市发展的重要着力区和新增长极[36],不透水地表变化剧烈,贡献指数由负值变为正值并成倍增长,逐步成为北京市不透水地表增长的主要源区。随着经济发展和人口增长,功能拓展区和发展新区是未来北京市发展的重点区域,将会进一步承担人口疏解和产业聚集等重要职能[37],在未来的发展中应更加关注这两个功能区的建设与生态环境的协调发展。生态涵养区的不透水地表面积和盖度值也在逐渐扩大,但因其地势较高,多为山区,植被生长状况良好[35],不透水地表盖度均值远低于北京市均值,贡献指数始终为负,且呈减小趋势。生态涵养发展区是北京的生态屏障和重要水源保护地,既是保证北京可持续发展的关键区域[26],也是唯一不透水地表增长速度低于北京市整体的功能区。然而其不透水地表的绝对面积在增长,不断侵蚀着原有的森林、水域和湿地等自然资源,在今后的发展中要更加注重保护该区域,以保障北京市整体的透水环境和生态功能。

5.2 基于软分类统计景观指数的优势及其生态含义

景观指数对于“软”分类结果的不透水地表信息变化十分敏感。对于各功能区来说,基于“软”分类得到的不透水地表蔓延度指数相较于“硬”分类方法的区分度更大(表4),尤其是针对功能核心区与城市发展新区和生态涵养发展区来说,在“软”分类结果中的蔓延度指数差异更为明显。这是因为在“软”分类结果的统计中,细小的斑块被保留,景观空间异质性较大,对景观局部的特征有较好的反映效果[38]
Tab. 4
表4
表42015年北京市“软”分类不透水地表与“硬“分类不透水地表蔓延度指数对比
Tab. 4The comparisons of CONTAG values calculated from the "hard" classifications and"soft" classifications for different function zones in 2015
功能核心区功能拓展区城市发展新区生态涵养发展区
蔓延度指数软分类36.9024.1716.0319.96
硬分类44.8430.1223.2328.17

注:“硬”分类不透水地表结果由“软”分类不透水地表中ISP > 50%的部分归类得到。
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景观水平上,功能核心区不透水地表的蔓延度指数最大,聚集程度最强,聚集度随时间推移先减弱后增强;功能拓展区作为北京市的重点开发区域,不透水地表主要以低密度蔓延和填充相结合的方式扩展[37],蔓延度指数先减小再增加,不透水地表聚集程度先减弱再增强;而城市发展新区和生态涵养区作为北京市发展的新增长极和生态功能保障区,不透水地表扩展主要以填充式为主[39],蔓延度指数逐渐增大,聚集度增强。斑块类型水平上,在功能核心区和功能拓展区随着ISP的增加,LSI和PD呈现先增后减的趋势,即景观离散度和破碎程度先加剧后减弱;在城市发展新区和生态涵养区,LSI和PD大致呈递减趋势,即景观离散度和破碎程度逐渐减弱。
不透水地表格局是影响城市生态系统服务、水环境及热环境效应的重要因素之一[23, 40-42],与流域河流水质的污染程度[12]和城市热岛效应有着明显的相关关系,不透水地表盖度的快速增长会加剧流域河流水质的污染程度和城市热岛效应[38, 43-44]。北京市高盖度不透水地表的分布最为集中紧凑,相比于其他类型不透水地表,高盖度不透水地表对城市环境的影响更大[45-46],因而北京市在以后的发展过程中要更加关注高盖度不透水地表的空间格局及增长模式,尽量减缓其增长速度及团聚程度。

6 结论

本文以Landsat系列影像和QuickBird高分辨率遥感影像为主要数据源,运用分类回归树(CART)模型得到北京市1991年、2001年、2011年和2015年4期亚像元不透水地表分布数据,在此基础上运用标准差椭圆、洛伦兹曲线、贡献指数及景观格局理论等分析了北京市各功能区及区县不透水地表的时空变化差异,得到以下主要结论:
景观指数对于“软”分类不透水地表信息的变化十分敏感,这为定量分析不同类型不透水地表空间模式对城市生态环境的影响奠定了基础,为探究不透水地表和生态环境因子间的定量关系提供了一种新的视角。
1991-2015年北京市不透水地表呈扩张趋势,总面积增加了约144.18%;分布的主导方向由早期的东北—西南趋向于当前的正北—正南。各功能区间不透水地表的空间分布异质性逐渐减弱,但贡献指数值存在很大差异:功能拓展区贡献指数最高,四年(1991年、2001年、2011年和2015年)中的最低值(1.79)高于其他功能区四年最高值,是北京市不透水地表增长最主要的贡献区;功能核心区的蔓延度指数值最高,各年值均大于30,约为其他功能区的2倍,为不透水地表的优势聚集区;发展新区的贡献值由负值变为正值并成倍增长,成为北京市不透水地表增长的主要源区;生态涵养发展区的贡献指数始终为负,并逐年减小。不同类型不透水地表的景观指数和质心偏移均存在差异,高盖度不透水地表形状指数和斑块密度值最小,分布最为集中,对生态环境影响较大,北京市在未来发展过程中应合理规划控制其空间格局及增长模式,尽量减缓其增长速度及团聚程度,更加关注区域建设与生态功能的协调发展。
The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

参考文献 原文顺序
文献年度倒序
文中引用次数倒序
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[6]Qiu Jianzhuang, Sang Fengyong, Gao Zhihong.RS estimating and analysis of urban impervious surface percentage and land surface temperature.
Science of Surveying and Mapping, 2011, 36(4): 211-213.
URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
全球气候变暖和城市化的快速发展,导致了城市不透水面急剧增加和热岛效应日趋严重。本文综合利用多源遥感数据进行城市不透水面覆盖度(ISP)和地面温度(LST)的估算,实验结果较好地反映了城市ISP和LST的空间分布和变化状况;同时对二者之间的相关关系进行了简要分析,发现ISP与地面温度之间具有正相关关系,为通过绿化建设改善城市热环境的方法提供了理论依据。
[邱健壮, 桑峰勇, 高志宏. 城市不透水面覆盖度与地面温度遥感估算与分析
. 测绘科学, 2011, 36(4): 211-213.].
URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
全球气候变暖和城市化的快速发展,导致了城市不透水面急剧增加和热岛效应日趋严重。本文综合利用多源遥感数据进行城市不透水面覆盖度(ISP)和地面温度(LST)的估算,实验结果较好地反映了城市ISP和LST的空间分布和变化状况;同时对二者之间的相关关系进行了简要分析,发现ISP与地面温度之间具有正相关关系,为通过绿化建设改善城市热环境的方法提供了理论依据。
[7]Nie Qin.Fractal investigation of urban impervious surfaces and its thermal environment effect in Shanghai City [D].
Shanghai: East China Normal University, 2013.
[本文引用: 1]

[聂芹. 上海市城市不透水面及其热环境效应的分形研究[D]
. 上海: 华东师范大学, 2013.]
[本文引用: 1]
[8]Fu P, Weng Q.A time series analysis of urbanization induced land use and land cover change and its impact on land surface temperature with landsat imagery.
Remote Sensing of Environment, 2016, 175(4): 205-214.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2015.12.040URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
61A time series analysis of the impact of urban LULC changes on thermal patterns61Time series LSTs were decomposed into stationary segments for analysis.61Surface reflectance, brightness temperature, and NDVI for classification/detection61Thermal temporal signatures were created to characterize urbanization impact.
[9]Xie Miaomiao, Wang Yanglin, Li Guicai.Spatial variation of impervious surface area and vegetation cover based on sub-pixel model in Shenzhen.
Resources Science, 2009, 31(2): 257-264.
https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:1007-7588.2009.02.012URLMagsci摘要
根据植被-不透水表面-土壤(VIS)三角概念模型,以深圳市2005年Landsat TM影像为数据源,利用线性光谱混合模型进行亚像元分解,以获取不透水表面比例与植被覆盖度的空间分布。在此基础上采用分区统计、格局指数、空间自相关分析等方法对研究区不透水表面与植被覆盖景观的空间分异进行测度。研究结果表明:与常规景观分类相比,基于亚像元分解的不透水表面与植被覆盖提取方法具有更高的精度,并可以表征地表覆盖的生物物理组分构成特点;深圳市不透水表面与植被覆盖在空间上显示出较强的空间自相关特性,其中植被覆盖表现的聚集特性更为显著。各区的平均不透水表面比例及空间构型有所差异,受到自然条件与城市化发展方式的影响,具有成片山体的区域由于建设活动受到限制,往往显示出景观聚集性强、破碎化程度低的特征;而在具有典型自发城市化特征的区域,景观较为破碎,且空间依赖性较弱。
[谢苗苗, 王仰麟, 李贵才. 基于亚像元分解的不透水表面与植被覆盖空间分异测度: 以深圳市为例
. 资源科学, 2009, 31(2): 257-264.]
https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:1007-7588.2009.02.012URLMagsci摘要
根据植被-不透水表面-土壤(VIS)三角概念模型,以深圳市2005年Landsat TM影像为数据源,利用线性光谱混合模型进行亚像元分解,以获取不透水表面比例与植被覆盖度的空间分布。在此基础上采用分区统计、格局指数、空间自相关分析等方法对研究区不透水表面与植被覆盖景观的空间分异进行测度。研究结果表明:与常规景观分类相比,基于亚像元分解的不透水表面与植被覆盖提取方法具有更高的精度,并可以表征地表覆盖的生物物理组分构成特点;深圳市不透水表面与植被覆盖在空间上显示出较强的空间自相关特性,其中植被覆盖表现的聚集特性更为显著。各区的平均不透水表面比例及空间构型有所差异,受到自然条件与城市化发展方式的影响,具有成片山体的区域由于建设活动受到限制,往往显示出景观聚集性强、破碎化程度低的特征;而在具有典型自发城市化特征的区域,景观较为破碎,且空间依赖性较弱。
[10]Brun S E, Band L E.Simulating runoff behavior in an urbanizing watershed.
Computers Environment & Urban Systems, 2000, 24(1): 5-22.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0198-9715(99)00040-XURL摘要
Land-use change in urbanizing watersheds has significant impacts on hydrolic processes and stream quality. Geographic information system (GIS) processing of spatial information is now commonly used to parameterize hydrologic models. We use and evaluate a system developed for the US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA), coupling Hydrologic Simulation Program02— Fortran (HSPF) with a commonly used GIS (ArcView03) to assess the effects of land-use change on watershed behavior. We extend this anlaysis to investigate relationships beetween runoff ratio and baseflow as a function of percent impervious cover and percent soil saturation for upper Gwynns Falls watershed, Baltimore, MD, USA. Hydrologic model output is used to define summary expressions to describe these relationships and condense complex system behavior. The summary expressions for the runoff ratio and baseflow relationships show that in upper Gwynns Falls from pre-urbanized times to 1990: (1) baseflow had declined by as much as 20%; and (2) only small changes in runoff ratio had occurred. The summary expression for the runoff ratio relationship indicates the existence of a threshold percent impervious cover (6520%), above which the runoff ratio changes more dramatically. By 1990, the percent impervious cover for upper Gwynns Falls (6518%) has not yet exceeded this threshold and may explain why only small changes in the runoff ratio had occurred.
[11]Gillies R R, Box J B, Symanzik J, et al.Effects of urbanization on the aquatic fauna of the line creek watershed, Atlanta: A satellite perspective.
Remote Sensing of Environment, 2003, 86(3): 411-422.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0034-4257(03)00082-8URL摘要
Impervious surface area (ISA) was derived for a period from 1979 to 1997 from Landsat MSS and TM data for the Line Creek watershed that lies to the south of the city of Atlanta, GA. The change in ISA is presented as an ecological indicator to examine the cumulative water resource impacts on mussel population in three sub-watersheds of Line Creek—namely, Line, Flat, and Whitewater creeks. The satellite analysis shows that ISA expansion occurred substantially from 1987 to 1997 and is predominantly in industrial, commercial, and shopping center (ICS) complexes but also in smaller lot-size residential development. Evidence of mussel habitat degradation is indicated and loss of species (in the region of 50 to 70%) is present in areas where ISA expansion is observed—specifically in ICS complex development in and around Peachtree City that drains directly into the Line and Flat creeks. This is in marked contrast to Whitewater Creek where overall development of ISA is less and no major loss of mussel species is observed.
[12]Kuang Wenhui, Liu Jiyuan, Lu Dengsheng.Pattern of impervious surface change and its effect on water environment in the Beijing-Tianjin-Tangshan metropolitan Area.
Acta Geographica Sinica, 2011, 66(11): 1486-1496.
[本文引用: 2]

[匡文慧, 刘纪远, 陆灯盛. 京津唐城市群不透水地表增长格局以及水环境效应
. 地理学报, 2011, 66(11): 1486-1496.]
[本文引用: 2]
[13]Gao Zhihong, Zhang Lu, Li Xinyan, et al.Detection and analysis of urban land use changes through multi -temporal impervious surface mapping.
Journal of Remote Sensing, 2010, 14(3): 593-606.
https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1011.2010.01138URLMagsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
通过分析城市中不透水面数量和分布的变化与城市土地利用变化之间的对应关系,综合中、高分辨率遥感数据各自的优势,运用CART算法进行城市不透水面覆盖度(ISP)遥感估算,基于ISP制图结果对城市土地利用变化进行检测.以山东省泰安市为例开展实验研究,结果表明,与传统的变化检测方法相比,基于ISP的变化检测方法,不仅能够反映土地利用类型转换的潜在信息,而且可以灵活地量化定义和解释城市用地变化情况.这种方法为城市土地利用变化信息的提取和分析提供了一种新的思路,可以作为现有变化检测方法的有益补充.
[高志宏, 张路, 李新延, . 城市土地利用变化的不透水面覆盖度检测方法
. 遥感学报, 2010, 14(3): 593-606.]
https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1011.2010.01138URLMagsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
通过分析城市中不透水面数量和分布的变化与城市土地利用变化之间的对应关系,综合中、高分辨率遥感数据各自的优势,运用CART算法进行城市不透水面覆盖度(ISP)遥感估算,基于ISP制图结果对城市土地利用变化进行检测.以山东省泰安市为例开展实验研究,结果表明,与传统的变化检测方法相比,基于ISP的变化检测方法,不仅能够反映土地利用类型转换的潜在信息,而且可以灵活地量化定义和解释城市用地变化情况.这种方法为城市土地利用变化信息的提取和分析提供了一种新的思路,可以作为现有变化检测方法的有益补充.
[14]Zhang Lu, Gao Zhihong, Liao Mingsheng, et al.Estimating urban impervious surface percentage with multi-source remote sensing data.
Geomatics and Information Science of Wuhan University, 2010, 35(10): 1212-1216.


[张路, 高志宏, 廖明生,. 利用多源遥感数据进行城市不透水面覆盖度估算
. 武汉大学学报信息科学版, 2010, 35(10): 1212-1216.]

[15]Song Yi.The study of the relationship between impervious surface changes and urban heat island effect in Dianchi Lake Basin based on landsat data [D].
Kunming: Yunnan Normal University, 2014.
[本文引用: 1]

[宋毅. 基于Landsat影像的滇池流域不透水面变化与城市热岛效应关系研究[D]
. 昆明: 云南师范大学, 2014.]
[本文引用: 1]
[16]Peng J, Liu Y, Shen H, et al.Using impervious surfaces to detect urban expansion in Beijing of China in 2000s.
Chinese Geographical Science, 2016, 26(2): 229-243.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11769-016-0802-5URL [本文引用: 1]
[17]Xiao Rongbo, Ouyang Zhiyun, Cai Yunan, et al.Urban landscape pattern study based on sub-pixel estimation of impervious surface.
Acta Ecologica Sinca, 2007, 27(8): 3189-3197.
https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:1000-0933.2007.08.012URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
城市硬化地表不仅是影响城市生态环境质量重要因子,也是定量描述城市地表物理特征,进行城市 景观分类的基础.基于多种分辨率遥感影像亚象元分类提取硬化地表成为近年来的研究热点.利用TM/ETM+和Quickbird不同分辨率遥感数据,以北 京市中心城区为研究区域,对比分析回归树法和多元回归法的估测精度,选出预测硬化地表指数(Impervious surface index,简称为ISI)最优估测模型,并进行景观分类与城市景观格局分析.结果表明:(1)回归树亚象元估测法是提取硬化地表信息的一种有效的方法 (最大相关系数=0.94),不同季节遥感影像可以挖掘地物在不同时期光谱差异,提高分类精度.(2)根据硬化地表指数划分城市用地类型,提供了量化分类 的依据;(3)北京城市硬化地表景观格局表现出极强的空间梯度性,从北京市中心到郊区,ISI逐渐降低:城市二环以内,ISI平均值为67.32%,集中 分布在高于60%范围;二环-四环分布比较相似,平均值分别为65.91%、66.13%;四环-五环区域ISI下降迅速(ISI=46.42%),存在 两个高峰,分别是低于<20%和>70%;六环以外区域,非硬化地表成为主要类型(ISI=9.32%);(4)北京市景观格局在不同区域差异巨大:从市 中心到市郊,景观破碎化程度加强,平均斑块面积逐渐增加,高密度城市用地比例逐步下降,自然地表平均面积呈现U形分布;中等密度城市用地斑块密度最高,破 碎度最高;城市用地形状比自然地表复杂,低密度城市用地形状最为复杂.(5)运用回归树亚象元估测法提取出北京中心城区硬化地表信息,为城市地表景观特征 提取与高精度量化分类提供了新的研究方法与研究思路,在此基础上进行了景观分类及景观格局分析,进一步推广并论证了硬化地表在景观生态学研究中的应用价 值.
[肖荣波, 欧阳志云, 蔡云楠, . 基于亚像元估测的城市硬化地表景观格局分析
. 生态学报, 2007, 27(8): 3189-3197.]
https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:1000-0933.2007.08.012URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
城市硬化地表不仅是影响城市生态环境质量重要因子,也是定量描述城市地表物理特征,进行城市 景观分类的基础.基于多种分辨率遥感影像亚象元分类提取硬化地表成为近年来的研究热点.利用TM/ETM+和Quickbird不同分辨率遥感数据,以北 京市中心城区为研究区域,对比分析回归树法和多元回归法的估测精度,选出预测硬化地表指数(Impervious surface index,简称为ISI)最优估测模型,并进行景观分类与城市景观格局分析.结果表明:(1)回归树亚象元估测法是提取硬化地表信息的一种有效的方法 (最大相关系数=0.94),不同季节遥感影像可以挖掘地物在不同时期光谱差异,提高分类精度.(2)根据硬化地表指数划分城市用地类型,提供了量化分类 的依据;(3)北京城市硬化地表景观格局表现出极强的空间梯度性,从北京市中心到郊区,ISI逐渐降低:城市二环以内,ISI平均值为67.32%,集中 分布在高于60%范围;二环-四环分布比较相似,平均值分别为65.91%、66.13%;四环-五环区域ISI下降迅速(ISI=46.42%),存在 两个高峰,分别是低于<20%和>70%;六环以外区域,非硬化地表成为主要类型(ISI=9.32%);(4)北京市景观格局在不同区域差异巨大:从市 中心到市郊,景观破碎化程度加强,平均斑块面积逐渐增加,高密度城市用地比例逐步下降,自然地表平均面积呈现U形分布;中等密度城市用地斑块密度最高,破 碎度最高;城市用地形状比自然地表复杂,低密度城市用地形状最为复杂.(5)运用回归树亚象元估测法提取出北京中心城区硬化地表信息,为城市地表景观特征 提取与高精度量化分类提供了新的研究方法与研究思路,在此基础上进行了景观分类及景观格局分析,进一步推广并论证了硬化地表在景观生态学研究中的应用价 值.
[18]Wang Jing, Su Gencheng, Kuang Wenhui, et al. Spatial and temporal patterns analysis of impervious surface in megacity: A case study of Beijing
. Bulletin of Surveying and Mapping, 2014(4): 90-94.
[本文引用: 3]

[王静, 苏根成, 匡文慧, . 特大城市不透水地表时空格局分析: 以北京市为例
. 测绘通报, 2014(4): 90-94.]
[本文引用: 3]
[19]Cui Yaoping, Liu Jiyuan, Qin Yaochen, et al.The impact of urban sprawl on heat island intensity in Beijing.
Chinese Journal of Ecology, 2015, 34(12): 3485-3493.
URLMagsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
<div >以北京市为例,基于多期土地利用变化(LUCC)数据集,城市和郊区气象观测数据及一期Landsat TM影像,对北京市的城市扩展与地表温度和近地表气温的对应关系及变化过程作了分析。利用混合像元分解技术实现北京市区下垫面的分类,并联立&ldquo;单窗算法&rdquo;反演的地表温度数据进行分析,在北京市范围内利用多期LUCC和气象站点观测数据,对北京城市扩展对气候的影响进行时间和空间上的综合评价。结果表明:北京市地表温度的高低主要与不透水层的比例有关,不透水层对地表增温的作用要大于植被层的降温作用;从时间上看,初步证实了城市热岛强度前期随着城市扩展而增加,但在一定条件下,其强度随城市扩展并非一味升高,反而会出现一定程度上的稳定甚至降低现象。</div><div >&nbsp;</div>
[崔耀平, 刘纪远, 秦耀辰, . 北京城市扩展对热岛效应的影响
. 生态学杂志, 2015, 34(12): 3485-3493.]
URLMagsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
<div >以北京市为例,基于多期土地利用变化(LUCC)数据集,城市和郊区气象观测数据及一期Landsat TM影像,对北京市的城市扩展与地表温度和近地表气温的对应关系及变化过程作了分析。利用混合像元分解技术实现北京市区下垫面的分类,并联立&ldquo;单窗算法&rdquo;反演的地表温度数据进行分析,在北京市范围内利用多期LUCC和气象站点观测数据,对北京城市扩展对气候的影响进行时间和空间上的综合评价。结果表明:北京市地表温度的高低主要与不透水层的比例有关,不透水层对地表增温的作用要大于植被层的降温作用;从时间上看,初步证实了城市热岛强度前期随着城市扩展而增加,但在一定条件下,其强度随城市扩展并非一味升高,反而会出现一定程度上的稳定甚至降低现象。</div><div >&nbsp;</div>
[20]Hao P, Niu Z, Zhan Y, et al.Spatiotemporal changes of urban impervious surface area and land surface temperature in Beijing from 1990 to 2014.
Giscience & Remote Sensing, 2015, 53(1): 1-22.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15481603.2015.1095471URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
This study examined changes in urban expansion and land surface temperature in Beijing between 1990 and 2014 using multitemporal TM, ETM+, and OLI images, and evaluated the relationship between percent impervious surface area (%ISA) and relative mean annual surface temperature (RMAST). From 1990 to 2001, both internal land transformation and outward expansion were observed. In the central urban area, the high-density urban areas decreased by almost 702km2, while the moderate- and high-density urban land areas increased by 250 and 9002km2, respectively, outside of the third ring road. From 2001 to 2014, high-density urban areas between the fifth and sixth ring roads experienced the greatest increase by more than 21002km2, and RMAST generally increased with %ISA. During 1990–2001 and 2001–2014, RMAST increased by more than 1.502K between the south third and fifth ring roads, and %ISA increased by more than 50% outside of the fifth ring road. These trends in urban expansion and RMAST over the last two decades in Beijing can provide useful information for urban planning decisions.
[21]Liu T, Yang X.Monitoring land changes in an urban area using satellite imagery, GIS and landscape metrics.
Applied Geography, 2015, 56: 42-54.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2014.10.002URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
Monitoring land changes is an important activity in landscape planning and resource management. In this study, we analyze urban land changes in Atlanta metropolitan area through the combined use of satellite imagery, geographic information systems (GIS), and landscape metrics. The study site is a fast-growing large metropolis in the United States, which contains a mosaic of complex landscape types. Our method consisted of two major components: remote sensing-based land classification and GIS-based land change analysis. Specifically, we adopted a stratified image classification strategy combined with a GIS-based spatial reclassification procedure to map land classes from Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) scenes acquired in two different years. Then, we analyzed the spatial variation and expansion of urban land changes across the entire metropolitan area through post classification change detection and a variety of GIS-based operations. We further examined the size, pattern, and nature of land changes using landscape metrics to examine the size, pattern, and nature of land changes. This study has demonstrated the usefulness of integrating remote sensing with GIS and landscape metrics in land change analysis that allows the characterization of spatial patterns and helps reveal the underlying processes of urban land changes. Our results indicate a transition of urbanization patterns in the study site with a limited outward expansion despite the dominant suburbanization process.
[22]Zhou W, Huang G, Cadenasso M L.Does spatial configuration matter? Understanding the effects of land cover pattern on land surface temperature in urban landscapes.
Landscape & Urban Planning, 2011, 102(1): 54-63.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2011.03.009URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
The effects of land cover composition on land surface temperature (LST) have been extensively documented. Few studies, however, have examined the effects of land cover configuration. This paper investigates the effects of both the composition and configuration of land cover features on LST in Baltimore, MD, USA, using correlation analyses and multiple linear regressions. Landsat ETM+image data were used to estimate LST. The composition and configuration of land cover features were measured by a series of landscape metrics, which were calculated based on a high-resolution land cover map with an overall accuracy of 92.3%. We found that the composition of land cover features is more important in determining LST than their configuration. The land cover feature that most significantly affects the magnitude of LST is the percent cover of buildings. In contrast, percent cover of woody vegetation is the most important factor mitigating UHI effects. However, the configuration of land cover features also matters. Holding composition constant, LST can be significantly increased or decreased by different spatial arrangements of land cover features. These results suggest that the impact of urbanization on UHI can be mitigated not only by balancing the relative amounts of various land cover features, but also by optimizing their spatial configuration. This research expands our scientific understanding of the effects of land cover pattern on UHI by explicitly quantifying the effects of configuration. In addition, it may provide important insights for urban planners and natural resources managers on mitigating the impact of urban development on UHI.
[23]Zhang Y, Balzter H, Zou C, et al.Characterizing bi-temporal patterns of land surface temperature using landscape metrics based on sub-pixel classifications from Landsat TM/ETM+.
International Journal of Applied Earth Observation & Geoinformation, 2015, 42: 87-96.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2015.06.007URL [本文引用: 2]摘要
Landscape patterns in a region have different sizes, shapes and spatial arrangements, which contribute to the spatial heterogeneity of the landscape and are linked to the distinct behavior of thermal environments. There is a lack of research generating landscape metrics from discretized percent impervious surface area data (ISA), which can be used as an indicator of urban spatial structure and level of development, and quantitatively characterizing the spatial patterns of landscapes and land surface temperatures (LST). In this study, linear spectral mixture analysis (LSMA) is used to derive sub-pixel ISA. Continuous fractional cover thresholds are used to discretize percent ISA into different categories related to urban land cover patterns. Landscape metrics are calculated based on different ISA categories and used to quantify urban landscape patterns and LST configurations. The characteristics of LST and percent ISA are quantified by landscape metrics such as indices of patch density, aggregation, connectedness, shape and shape complexity. The urban thermal intensity is also analyzed based on percent ISA. The results indicate that landscape metrics are sensitive to the variation of pixel values of fractional ISA, and the integration of LST, LSMA. Landscape metrics provide a quantitative method for describing the spatial distribution and seasonal variation in urban thermal patterns in response to associated urban land cover patterns.
[24]Peng J, Wang Y, Zhang Y, et al.Evaluating the effectiveness of landscape metrics in quantifying spatial patterns.
Ecological Indicators, 2010, 10(2): 217-223.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2009.04.017URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
The effectiveness of landscape metrics in quantifying spatial patterns is fundamental to metrics assessment. Setting 36 simulated landscapes as sample space and focusing on 23 widely used landscape metrics, their effectiveness in quantifying the complexity of such spatial pattern components as number of patch types, area ratio of patch types and patch aggregation level, were analyzed with the application of the multivariate linear regression analysis method. The results showed that all the metrics were effective in quantifying a certain component of spatial patterns, and proved that what the metrics quantified were not a single component but the complexity of several components of spatial patterns. The study also showed a distinct inconsistency between the performances of landscape metrics in simulated landscapes and the real urban landscape of Shenzhen, China. It was suggested that the inconsistency resulted from the difference of the correlation among spatial pattern components between simulated and real landscapes. After considering the very difference, the changes of all 23 landscape metrics against changing of number of patch types in simulated landscapes were consistent with those in the real landscape. The phenomenon was deduced as the sign effect of spatial pattern components on landscape metrics, which was of great significance to the proper use of landscape metrics.
[25]Yang L, Huang C, Homer C G, et al.An approach for mapping large-area impervious surfaces: Synergistic use of Landsat-7 ETM+ and high spatial resolution imagery.
Canadian Journal of Remote Sensing, 2003, 29(2): 230-240.
https://doi.org/10.5589/m02-098URL [本文引用: 2]摘要
A wide range of urban ecosystem studies, including urban hydrology, urban climate, land use planning, and resource management, require current and accurate geospatial data of urban impervious surfaces. We developed an approach to quantify urban impervious surfaces as a continuous variable by using multisensor and multisource datasets. Subpixel percent impervious surfaces at 30-m resolution were mapped using a regression tree model. The utility, practicality, and affordability of the proposed method for large-area imperviousness mapping were tested over three spatial scales (Sioux Falls, South Dakota, Richmond, Virginia, and the Chesapeake Bay areas of the United States). Average error of predicted versus actual percent impervious surface ranged from 8.8 to 11.4%, with correlation coefficients from 0.82 to 0.91. The approach is being implemented to map impervious surfaces for the entire United States as one of the major components of the circa 2000 national land cover database.
[26]Li Zhi, Wei Zongqiang, Liu Yajing, et al.Reach on chinese central city impervious surface area growth pattern in recent 20 years: Take Nanchang as a case.
Scienta Geographica Sinica, 2015, 35(11): 1444-1451.
URLMagsci [本文引用: 2]摘要
<p>以典型样地基准化法结合约束性线性光谱分解法对南昌市主城区1995 年以来不透水面增长格局演变及其模式进行研究。结果表明:研究区不透水面格局呈&ldquo;较散-集中-扩散&rdquo;发展的总体规律,主导模式从&ldquo;以轴线延伸式&rdquo;向&ldquo;以卫星填充式、零星飞地式增长&rdquo;进行转变;格局变化与经济社会发展阶段演变、便捷技术及材料的广泛使用,地区土地政策、城市规划、城建投资等因素有关;制定理性的城市规划、重点关注郊区用地过快增长、推广使用绿色透水建材、透水的施工技术等可减缓研究区过快增长的不透水率。</p>
[李志, 魏宗强, 刘雅静, . 1995年以来中国中部城市不透水面增长变化监测及其增长模式研究: 以南昌市为例
. 地理科学, 2015, 35(11): 1444-1451.]
URLMagsci [本文引用: 2]摘要
<p>以典型样地基准化法结合约束性线性光谱分解法对南昌市主城区1995 年以来不透水面增长格局演变及其模式进行研究。结果表明:研究区不透水面格局呈&ldquo;较散-集中-扩散&rdquo;发展的总体规律,主导模式从&ldquo;以轴线延伸式&rdquo;向&ldquo;以卫星填充式、零星飞地式增长&rdquo;进行转变;格局变化与经济社会发展阶段演变、便捷技术及材料的广泛使用,地区土地政策、城市规划、城建投资等因素有关;制定理性的城市规划、重点关注郊区用地过快增长、推广使用绿色透水建材、透水的施工技术等可减缓研究区过快增长的不透水率。</p>
[27]David W S Wong. Several fundamentals in implementing spatial statistics in GIS: Using centrographic measures as examples.
Geographic Information Sciences, 1999, 5(2): 163-174.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10824009909480525URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
Significant research effort has been focusing on using GIS for advanced spatial statistics, modeling, and simulation. This paper argues that even though GIS have great potential to facilitate sophisticated spatial modeling and spatial statistics, the simple but important theme of combining spatial information with statistical analysis has not received enough attention and should not be neglected. This paper discusses how different types of geographic information can be derived from and stored in GIS with special attention on location information. Other types of geographic information such as spatial relationship and connectivity are derivatives of simple location information and are briefly discussed. Using a set of centrographic measures a subset of spatial statistics, this paper demonstrates how statistical techniques can be combined with geographic information such as longitude and latitude of points in analyses. Some of these techniques also utilize attribute data of the point locations in conjunction with locational information. As long as geographic information is extracted from GIS and made accessible to users, the GIS environment provides great potential to develop new spatial analytical methods by directly manipulating geographic information alone or together with attribute data. Using locational and attribute data of selected U.S. cities as an example, this paper shows how spatial mean, spatial median, standard distance and deviational ellipse are derived in a GIS environment.
[28]Lauren M S, Mark V J.Spatial statistics in ArcGIS//Fischer M M, Getis A. Handbook of Applied Spatial Analysis: Software Tools, Methods and Applications.
Berlin: Springer, 2010.
[本文引用: 1]
[29]Zhang Jing, Feng Zhiming, Yang Yanzhao.Lorenz Curve and its application in the research of spatio-temporal pattern of cultivated land,grain and population in China.
Journal of Arid Land Resources and Environment, 2007, 21(11): 63-67.
[本文引用: 1]

[张晶, 封志明, 杨艳昭. 洛伦兹曲线及其在中国耕地、粮食、人口时空演变格局研究中的应用
. 干旱区资源与环境, 2007, 21(11): 63-67.]
[本文引用: 1]
[30]Yang Jun, Wang Jia, Zhang Zongyi.Inter-provincial discrepancy and abatement target aachievement in carbon emissions: A study on carbon Lorenz Curve.
Acta Scientiae Circumstantiae, 2012, 32(8): 2016-2023.
URLMagsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
通过1997—2009年中国各省份的能源消耗实物量来估算其CO<sub>2</sub>排放量,并运用收入不平等的度量工具——洛伦兹曲线、序列和基尼系数等来分析中国省际CO<sub>2</sub>排放差异,进而探讨跨省CO<sub>2</sub>排放均等化及中国减排目标的实现问题,以期为CO<sub>2</sub>减排政策制定和普通民众展示一种更直观、更易于接受的分析方法.研究发现,从1997年到2009年,有别于中国地区经济发展不平衡的状况,中国省际CO<sub>2</sub>排放基尼系数并未超过0.30,从1997年的0.273降为2009年的0.254,近几年基本保持在0.250左右,差异较小且趋于收敛;按照2009年价格计算,中国碳排放强度基本呈下降趋势,从1997年的2.12 t·万元<sup>-1</sup>降为2009年的1.685 t·万元<sup>-1</sup>;基于这些趋势,即使维持现状不变,中国政府的CO<sub>2</sub>减排承诺也基本可以兑现.
[杨俊, 王佳, 张宗益. 中国省际碳排放差异与碳减排目标实现: 基于碳洛伦兹曲线的分析
. 环境科学学报, 2012, 32(8): 2016-2023.]
URLMagsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
通过1997—2009年中国各省份的能源消耗实物量来估算其CO<sub>2</sub>排放量,并运用收入不平等的度量工具——洛伦兹曲线、序列和基尼系数等来分析中国省际CO<sub>2</sub>排放差异,进而探讨跨省CO<sub>2</sub>排放均等化及中国减排目标的实现问题,以期为CO<sub>2</sub>减排政策制定和普通民众展示一种更直观、更易于接受的分析方法.研究发现,从1997年到2009年,有别于中国地区经济发展不平衡的状况,中国省际CO<sub>2</sub>排放基尼系数并未超过0.30,从1997年的0.273降为2009年的0.254,近几年基本保持在0.250左右,差异较小且趋于收敛;按照2009年价格计算,中国碳排放强度基本呈下降趋势,从1997年的2.12 t·万元<sup>-1</sup>降为2009年的1.685 t·万元<sup>-1</sup>;基于这些趋势,即使维持现状不变,中国政府的CO<sub>2</sub>减排承诺也基本可以兑现.
[31]Huang Jucong, Zhao Xiaofeng, Tang Lina, et al.Analysis on spatiotemporal changes of urban thermal landscape pattern in the context of urbanization: A case study of Xiamen City.
Acta Ecologica Sinica, 2012, 32(2): 622-631.
https://doi.org/10.5846/stxb201012071745URLMagsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
热岛效应作为城市化过程中产生的特有环境问题,对其形成和演变规律的研究有助于人们提出有效的应对措施。以厦门市为研究对象,利用1987-2007年等时间间隔、同时相的5景Landsat TM/ETM+遥感影像数据进行地表温度反演,在此基础上使用景观格局指数分析厦门城市热岛景观格局随城市化进程演变的趋势。结果表明:随着厦门城市化进程加深,整个热岛景观在逐渐变得更加破碎化,高等级热岛景观斑块个数、类型面积和个体面积都增大;新的高等级热岛景观斑块都出现在原有高等级斑块附近,致使高等级类型的邻近度增加而各类型之间相互接触的程度也增加;景观总体的聚合度逐渐下降,而高等级热岛景观类型的聚合度则呈上升趋势;景观水平的蔓延度总体呈下降趋势,优势度高的低等级热岛景观所占的比重下降,优势度逐渐降低;多样性指数、均匀度指数总体呈上升趋势,各热岛景观面积在各类型间的分配逐渐趋于均匀;热岛景观斑块的转化方面,在20 a间低等级斑块类型(1、2、3级)向高等级斑块类型(4、5、6级)转化的面积总体上呈增加趋势,而高等级斑块类型向低等级斑块类型转化的面积总体上呈减小趋势,且等级升高的面积明显大于同期等级降低的面积;就高等级热岛景观斑块而言,他们与3级热岛景观斑块间的相互转化最容易发生,远比高等级斑块内部各类型之间的相互转化来得容易,尤其6类和5类的转化是最为困难的热岛景观变化之一;从空间上看,各高等级热岛景观斑块都经历了数量增加、面积扩大、等级升高三个方面的变化,形成了海沧、新阳、杏林、厦门岛西北港口区和机场5个高温组团。利用景观指数分析城市热环境,可探明热岛景观随城市化演变的趋势,并为有效的热岛效应减缓措施提供直接的理论依据。
[黄聚聪, 赵小锋, 唐立娜, . 城市化进程中城市热岛景观格局演变的时空特征: 以厦门市为例
. 生态学报, 2012, 32(2): 622-631.]
https://doi.org/10.5846/stxb201012071745URLMagsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
热岛效应作为城市化过程中产生的特有环境问题,对其形成和演变规律的研究有助于人们提出有效的应对措施。以厦门市为研究对象,利用1987-2007年等时间间隔、同时相的5景Landsat TM/ETM+遥感影像数据进行地表温度反演,在此基础上使用景观格局指数分析厦门城市热岛景观格局随城市化进程演变的趋势。结果表明:随着厦门城市化进程加深,整个热岛景观在逐渐变得更加破碎化,高等级热岛景观斑块个数、类型面积和个体面积都增大;新的高等级热岛景观斑块都出现在原有高等级斑块附近,致使高等级类型的邻近度增加而各类型之间相互接触的程度也增加;景观总体的聚合度逐渐下降,而高等级热岛景观类型的聚合度则呈上升趋势;景观水平的蔓延度总体呈下降趋势,优势度高的低等级热岛景观所占的比重下降,优势度逐渐降低;多样性指数、均匀度指数总体呈上升趋势,各热岛景观面积在各类型间的分配逐渐趋于均匀;热岛景观斑块的转化方面,在20 a间低等级斑块类型(1、2、3级)向高等级斑块类型(4、5、6级)转化的面积总体上呈增加趋势,而高等级斑块类型向低等级斑块类型转化的面积总体上呈减小趋势,且等级升高的面积明显大于同期等级降低的面积;就高等级热岛景观斑块而言,他们与3级热岛景观斑块间的相互转化最容易发生,远比高等级斑块内部各类型之间的相互转化来得容易,尤其6类和5类的转化是最为困难的热岛景观变化之一;从空间上看,各高等级热岛景观斑块都经历了数量增加、面积扩大、等级升高三个方面的变化,形成了海沧、新阳、杏林、厦门岛西北港口区和机场5个高温组团。利用景观指数分析城市热环境,可探明热岛景观随城市化演变的趋势,并为有效的热岛效应减缓措施提供直接的理论依据。
[32]Li X, Gong P, Liang L.A 30-year (1984-2013) record of annual urban dynamics of Beijing City derived from Landsat data.
Remote Sensing of Environment, 2015, 116(1): 78-90.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2015.06.007URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
Although mapping activities of urban land change have been widely carried out, detailed information on urban development in time over rapid urbanization areas would have been lost in most studies with multi-year intervals. Here we provide a two-stage framework of long-term mapping of urban areas at an annual frequency in Beijing, China, over the period from 1984 to 2013. Classification for each year was carried out initially based on a number of Landsat scenes within that year using spectral information from a base image plus NDVI time series derived from all scenes. A temporal consistency check involving both temporal filtering and heuristic reasoning was then applied to the sequence of classified urban maps for further improvement. We assessed this time-series of urban maps based on two schemes. One is change detection in rapidly developing areas over the past three decades, and the other is accuracy assessment over the whole region in four selected years (i.e., 1984, 1990, 2000 and 2013). Based on validation using independent samples, the OAs (overall accuracies) of these four years are 96%, 93%, 92% and 95%, respectively. Meanwhile, the average accuracy of change detection for all years is 83%. In addition, the proposed temporal consistency check was found to be able to make considerable improvements (about 6%) to the overall accuracies and results of change detection. The resultant urban land sequence revealed that the average growth rates were 47.5102±024.1702km 2 /year, 34.6502±022.9002km 2 /year and 99.4802±021.302km 2 /year for 1984–1990, 1990–2000 and 2000–2013, respectively.
[33]Wang J, Li C, Hu L, et al.Seasonal land cover dynamics in Beijing derived from Landsat 8 data using a spatio-temporal contextual approach.
Remote Sensing, 2015, 7(1): 865-881.
https://doi.org/10.3390/rs70100865URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
Seasonal dynamic land cover maps could provide useful information to ecosystem, water-resource and climate modelers. However, they are rarely mapped more frequent than annually. Here, we propose an approach to map dynamic land cover types with frequently available satellite data. Landsat 8 data acquired from nine dates over Beijing within a one-year period were used to map seasonal land cover dynamics. A two-step procedure was performed for training sample collection to get better results. Sample sets were interpreted for each acquisition date of Landsat 8 image. We used the random forest classifier to realize the mapping. Nine sets of experiments were designed to incorporate different input features and use of spatial temporal information into the dynamic land cover classification. Land cover maps obtained with single-date data in the optical spectral region were used as benchmarks. Texture, NDVI and thermal infrared bands were added as new features for improvements. A Markov random field (MRF) model was applied to maintain the spatio-temporal consistency. Classifications with all features from all images were performed, and an MRF model was also applied to the results estimated with all features. The best overall accuracies achieved for each date ranged from 75.31% to 85.61%.
[34]Kuang W, Chi W, Lu D, et al.A comparative analysis of megacity expansions in China and the U.S.: Patterns, rates and driving forces.
Landscape & Urban Planning, 2014, 133(132): 121-135.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2014.08.015URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
中国科学院机构知识库(中国科学院机构知识库网格(CAS IR GRID))以发展机构知识能力和知识管理能力为目标,快速实现对本机构知识资产的收集、长期保存、合理传播利用,积极建设对知识内容进行捕获、转化、传播、利用和审计的能力,逐步建设包括知识内容分析、关系分析和能力审计在内的知识服务能力,开展综合知识管理。
[35]Qiao Z, Tian G, Xiao L.Diurnal and seasonal impacts of urbanization on the urban thermal environment: A case study of Beijing using MODIS data.
ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry & Remote Sensing, 2013, 85(2): 93-101.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2013.08.010URL [本文引用: 2]摘要
Beijing has experienced rapid urbanization and associated urban heat island effects and air pollution. In this study, a contribution index was proposed to explore the effect of urbanization on land surface temperature (LST) using Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS)-derived data with high temporal resolution. The analysis indicated that different zones and landscapes make diurnally and seasonally different contributions to the regional thermal environment. The differences in contributions by the three main functional zones resulted from differences in their landscape compositions. The roles of landscapes in this process varied diurnally and seasonally. Urban land was the most important contributor to increases in regional LSTs. The contributions of cropland and forest varied distinctly between daytime and nighttime owing to differences in their thermal inertias. Vegetation had a notable cooling effect as the normalized vegetation difference index (NDVI) increased during summer. However, when the NDVI reached a certain value, the nighttime LST shifted markedly in other seasons. The results suggest that urban design based on vegetation partitions would be effective for regulating the thermal environment.
[36]State Council Letter [2005] No.2. Beijing City Master Plan (2004-2020). 2005. [本文引用: 1]

[国函[2005]2号. 北京市城市总体规划(2004-2020). 2005.] [本文引用: 1]
[37]Qiao Zhi, Tian Guangjin.Spatiotemporal diversity and regionalization of the urban thermal environment in Beijing.
Journal of Remote Sensing, 2014, 18(3): 715-734.
https://doi.org/10.11834/jrs.20143030URLMagsci [本文引用: 2]摘要
城市热环境空间区划是采用分区管理的思路来缓解城市社会经济发展与热环境之间矛盾的技术基础。本文构建城市热环境区划模型的思路为:(1)将不同时相的MODIS地表温度数据产品进行正规化、分级,分析2008年北京城市热环境时空分布特征。(2)构建城市热环境影响因素评价体系,并通过空间主成分分析计算得到热环境影响主成分因子。(3)通过自组织映射神经网络,利用热环境影响主因子,进一步对热环境进行空间区划。结果表明,北京夜间较白天城市热岛分布层次感明显,夏季白天较其他季节高温区聚合程度高。区域下垫面组成要素直接影响热环境,北京城市热环境的主成分因子依次为植被覆盖、地形地貌、城市下垫面建设规模和人为热排放,并依此将北京划为7个热环境区域,根据各个分区热环境成因机制差异分别提出热环境改善和调控措施。
[乔治, 田光进. 北京市热环境时空分异与区划
. 遥感学报, 2014, 18(3): 715-734.]
https://doi.org/10.11834/jrs.20143030URLMagsci [本文引用: 2]摘要
城市热环境空间区划是采用分区管理的思路来缓解城市社会经济发展与热环境之间矛盾的技术基础。本文构建城市热环境区划模型的思路为:(1)将不同时相的MODIS地表温度数据产品进行正规化、分级,分析2008年北京城市热环境时空分布特征。(2)构建城市热环境影响因素评价体系,并通过空间主成分分析计算得到热环境影响主成分因子。(3)通过自组织映射神经网络,利用热环境影响主因子,进一步对热环境进行空间区划。结果表明,北京夜间较白天城市热岛分布层次感明显,夏季白天较其他季节高温区聚合程度高。区域下垫面组成要素直接影响热环境,北京城市热环境的主成分因子依次为植被覆盖、地形地貌、城市下垫面建设规模和人为热排放,并依此将北京划为7个热环境区域,根据各个分区热环境成因机制差异分别提出热环境改善和调控措施。
[38]Zou Chuncheng, Zhang Youshui, Huang Huanhuan.Impacts of impervious surface area and landscape metrics on urban heat environment in Fuzhou City, China. Journal of Geo-information
Science, 2014, 16(3): 490-498.
https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1047.2014.00490Magsci [本文引用: 2]摘要
<p>城市化致使城市环境问题的产生,城市热环境问题就是其中之一。本文从不透水面方面研究对城市热环境的影响。根据福州市1989年和2001年LandsatTM/ETM+遥感影像数据,利用线性光谱分解法提取两时相不透水面信息,并离散化分级为中低、中、中高、高密度区4个区域,分别计算这4个区域的地表温度(LST)、归一化植被指数(NDVI),并进行相关性分析;根据阈值法和范围法分别计算不透水面的PD、AI、LPI等景观指数,结果表明:两时段内不透水面的面积有所增加,在高密度区增加明显;不透水面与地表温度的呈正相关,相关系数分别为0.66和0.71;不透水面景观指数对FISA敏感,景观指数整体的变化趋势与地表温度的变化趋势相一致,FISA值越大,温度越高,且各斑块的形状越来越复杂,空间的连续性越强;聚集度越高,人类活动也越强。</p>
[邹春城, 张友水, 黄欢欢. 福州市城市不透水面景观指数与城市热环境关系分析
. 地球信息科学学报, 2014, 16(3): 490-498.]
https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1047.2014.00490Magsci [本文引用: 2]摘要
<p>城市化致使城市环境问题的产生,城市热环境问题就是其中之一。本文从不透水面方面研究对城市热环境的影响。根据福州市1989年和2001年LandsatTM/ETM+遥感影像数据,利用线性光谱分解法提取两时相不透水面信息,并离散化分级为中低、中、中高、高密度区4个区域,分别计算这4个区域的地表温度(LST)、归一化植被指数(NDVI),并进行相关性分析;根据阈值法和范围法分别计算不透水面的PD、AI、LPI等景观指数,结果表明:两时段内不透水面的面积有所增加,在高密度区增加明显;不透水面与地表温度的呈正相关,相关系数分别为0.66和0.71;不透水面景观指数对FISA敏感,景观指数整体的变化趋势与地表温度的变化趋势相一致,FISA值越大,温度越高,且各斑块的形状越来越复杂,空间的连续性越强;聚集度越高,人类活动也越强。</p>
[39]Kuang Wenhui, Shao Quanqin, Liu Jiyuan, et al.Spatio-temporal patterns and driving forces of urban expansion in Beijing Central City since 1932. Journal of Geo-information
Science, 2009, 11(4): 428-435.
https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1560-8999.2009.04.004URLMagsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
基于历史地图、地形图和遥感影像提取1932年以来,北京主城区城市空间扩张,以及建筑密度空间信息。从城市土地利用扩张特征、建筑密度变化特征以及驱动机制三个方面分析北京城市土地利用扩张过程。研究表明:1984年前,北京城市呈现缓慢增长趋势。1984-1992年在市场经济驱动下,北京进入了第一次大规模快速的扩张阶段。1992-2000年间,由于我国出台了最为严格的耕地保护政策,这一时段城市空间扩张有所放缓。2000-2007年受北京城市建设规划、2008年奥运会场馆建设的影响,北京城市进入了有史以来,最快的扩张阶段。北京城市呈现单中心低密度蔓延,1982年前,城市扩张形态以相对较高的建筑密度紧凑扩张模式为主,1982年以来,呈现严重的低密度蔓延态势,特别是2000-2007年城市在5-6环之间&quot;摊大饼&quot;式与&quot;遍地开花&quot;式低密度蔓延问题更为突出。北京城市空间扩张是重大事件与人口、社会经济等因素共同驱动的结果。而且重大事件驱动对于长时间序列城市空间扩张作用更为突出。
[匡文慧, 邵全琴, 刘纪远, . 1932年以来北京主城区土地利用空间扩张特征与机制分析
. 地球信息科学学报, 2009, 11(4): 428-435.]
https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1560-8999.2009.04.004URLMagsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
基于历史地图、地形图和遥感影像提取1932年以来,北京主城区城市空间扩张,以及建筑密度空间信息。从城市土地利用扩张特征、建筑密度变化特征以及驱动机制三个方面分析北京城市土地利用扩张过程。研究表明:1984年前,北京城市呈现缓慢增长趋势。1984-1992年在市场经济驱动下,北京进入了第一次大规模快速的扩张阶段。1992-2000年间,由于我国出台了最为严格的耕地保护政策,这一时段城市空间扩张有所放缓。2000-2007年受北京城市建设规划、2008年奥运会场馆建设的影响,北京城市进入了有史以来,最快的扩张阶段。北京城市呈现单中心低密度蔓延,1982年前,城市扩张形态以相对较高的建筑密度紧凑扩张模式为主,1982年以来,呈现严重的低密度蔓延态势,特别是2000-2007年城市在5-6环之间&quot;摊大饼&quot;式与&quot;遍地开花&quot;式低密度蔓延问题更为突出。北京城市空间扩张是重大事件与人口、社会经济等因素共同驱动的结果。而且重大事件驱动对于长时间序列城市空间扩张作用更为突出。
[40]Liu Yanxu, Wu Wenheng, Wen Xiaojin, et al.Urban process and its eco-environmental impact in Shanxi-Shaanxi-Inner Mongolia energy area.
Geographical Research, 2013, 32(11): 2009-2020.
[本文引用: 1]

[刘焱序, 吴文恒, 温晓金, . 晋陕蒙能源区城镇化过程及其对生态环境的影响
. 地理研究, 2013, 32(11): 2009-2020.]
[本文引用: 1]
[41]Xian G.Analysis of impacts of urban land use and land cover on air quality in the Las Vegas region using remote sensing information and ground observations.
International Journal of Remote Sensing, 2007, 28(24): 5427-5445.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01431160701227653URL摘要
Urban development in the Las Vegas Valley of Nevada (USA) has expanded rapidly over the past 50 years. The air quality in the valley has suffered owing to increases from anthropogenic emissions of carbon monoxide, ozone and criteria pollutants of particular matter. Air quality observations show that pollutant concentrations have apparent heterogeneous characteristics in the urban area. Quantified urban land use and land cover information derived from satellite remote sensing data indicate an apparent local influence of urban development density on air pollutant distributions. Multi ear observational data collected by a network of local air monitoring stations specify that ozone maximums develop in the May and June timeframe, whereas minimum concentrations generally occur from November to February. The fine particulate matter maximum occurs in July. Ozone concentrations are highest on the west and northwest sides of the valley. Night ime ozone reduction contributes to the heterogeneous features of the spatial distribution for average ozone levels in the Las Vegas metropolitan area. Decreased ozone levels associated with increased urban development density suggest that the highest ozone and lowest nitrogen oxides concentrations are associated with medium to low density urban development in Las Vegas.
[42]May C W, Horner R R, Karr J R, et al.Effects of urbanization on small streams in the Puget Sound Lowland Ecoregion. Watershed Protection Techniques, 1997(4): 79-90. [本文引用: 1]
[43]Yuan F, Bauer M E.Comparison of impervious surface area and normalized difference vegetation index as indicators of surface urban heat island effects in landsat imagery.
Remote Sensing of Environment, 2007, 106(3): 375-386.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2006.09.003URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
This paper compares the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and percent impervious surface as indicators of surface urban heat island effects in Landsat imagery by investigating the relationships between the land surface temperature (LST), percent impervious surface area (%ISA), and the NDVI. Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) and Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) data were used to estimate the LST from four different seasons for the Twin Cities, Minnesota, metropolitan area. A map of percent impervious surface with a standard error of 7.95% was generated using a normalized spectral mixture analysis of July 2002 Landsat TM imagery. Our analysis indicates there is a strong linear relationship between LST and percent impervious surface for all seasons, whereas the relationship between LST and NDVI is much less strong and varies by season. This result suggests percent impervious surface provides a complementary metric to the traditionally applied NDVI for analyzing LST quantitatively over the seasons for surface urban heat island studies using thermal infrared remote sensing in an urbanized environment.
[44]Zhang Y S, Odeh I O A, Han C F. Bi-temporal characterization of land surface temperature in relation to impervious surface area, NDVI and NDBI, using a sub-pixel image analysis.
International Journal of Applied Earth Observation & Geoinformation, 2009, 11(4): 256-264.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2009.03.001URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
As more than 50% of the human population are situated in cities of the world, urbanization has become an important contributor to global warming due to remarkable urban heat island (UHI) effect. UHI effect has been linked to the regional climate, environment, and socio-economic development. In this study, Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) and Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) imagery, respectively acquired in 1989 and 2001, were utilized to assess urban area thermal characteristics in Fuzhou, the capital city of Fujian province in south-eastern China. As a key indicator for the assessment of urban environments, sub-pixel impervious surface area (ISA) was mapped to quantitatively determine urban land-use extents and urban surface thermal patterns. In order to accurately estimate urban surface types, high-resolution imagery was utilized to generate the proportion of impervious surface areas. Urban thermal characteristics was further analysed by investigating the relationships between the land surface temperature (LST), percent impervious surface area, and two indices, the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Normalized Difference Built-up Index (NDBI). The results show that correlations between NDVI and LST are rather weak, but there is a strong positive correlation between percent ISA, NDBI and LST. This suggests that percent ISA, combined with LST, and NDBI, can quantitatively describe the spatial distribution and temporal variation of urban thermal patterns and associated land-use/land-cover (LULC) conditions.
[45]Weng Q.Modeling urban growth effects on surface runoff with the integration of remote sensing and GIS.
Environmental Management, 2001, 28(6): 737-748.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s002670010258URLPMID:11915963 [本文引用: 1]摘要
Abstract A methodology is developed to relate urban growth studies to distributed hydrological modeling using an integrated approach of remote sensing and GIS. This linkage is possible because both studies share land-use and land-cover data. Landsat Thematic Mapper data are utilized to detect urban land-cover changes. GIS analyses are then conducted to examine the changing spatial patterns of urban growth. The integration of remote sensing and GIS is applied to automate the estimation of surface runoff based on the Soil Conservation Service model. Impacts of urban growth on surface runoff and the rainfall-runoff relationship are examined by linking the two modeling results with spatial analysis techniques. This methodology is applied to the Zhujiang Delta of southern China, where dramatic urban growth has occurred over the past two decades, and the rampant urban growth has created severe problems in water resources management. The results revealed a notably uneven spatial pattern of urban growth and an increase of 8.10 mm in annual runoff depth during the 1989-1997 period. An area that experienced more urban growth had a greater potential for increasing annual surface runoff. Highly urbanized areas were more prone to flooding. Urbanization lowered potential maximum storage, and thus increased runoff coefficient values.
[46]Zhang Daowei, Guo Huadong, Sun Zhongchang.Estimating surface characteristic parameters in the megacities and the research on their effects towardsthe urban heat environment.
Remote Sensing Technology and Application, 2012, 27(1): 51-57.
Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
<p>近年来超大城市的下垫面环境发生了显著变化,并对区域生态系统造成了明显的影响。因此有必要定量化下垫面特征参数并研究它们之间的相互关系对城市热环境的影响。以北京市为例,采用2009年6月2日Landsat\|5 TM卫星影像提取城市不透水层百分比、地表温度、土地利用/土地覆盖和植被指数这些典型地表特征参数,并分析它们之间的定量关系。研究结果表明:随着城市化进程加快,北京市高不透水面扩展到六环,六环以内地表温度保持在40 ℃以上,特别是商业区等特高不透水面区域地表温度甚至高达45 ℃,处于城市高温区域,六环以内区域平均温度波动幅度不大。另外,森林和农业用地的降温作用明显,最高降温幅度达到6 ℃,而且夏季裸土地表温度接近高密度居民区地表温度。</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
[张道卫, 郭华东, 孙中昶. 超大城市地表特征参数估算及其对城市热环境的影响研究
. 遥感技术与应用, 2012, 27(1): 51-57.]
Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
<p>近年来超大城市的下垫面环境发生了显著变化,并对区域生态系统造成了明显的影响。因此有必要定量化下垫面特征参数并研究它们之间的相互关系对城市热环境的影响。以北京市为例,采用2009年6月2日Landsat\|5 TM卫星影像提取城市不透水层百分比、地表温度、土地利用/土地覆盖和植被指数这些典型地表特征参数,并分析它们之间的定量关系。研究结果表明:随着城市化进程加快,北京市高不透水面扩展到六环,六环以内地表温度保持在40 ℃以上,特别是商业区等特高不透水面区域地表温度甚至高达45 ℃,处于城市高温区域,六环以内区域平均温度波动幅度不大。另外,森林和农业用地的降温作用明显,最高降温幅度达到6 ℃,而且夏季裸土地表温度接近高密度居民区地表温度。</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
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