Analysis of resource and environmental effects of tourism consumption and mechanisms
WANGLing'en1,2,, ZHONGLinsheng1,, CHENGShengkui1 1. Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research,Chinese Academy of Sciences,Beijing 100101,China2. Management School,University of Waikato,Hamilton 3240,New Zealand 通讯作者:通讯作者:钟林生,E-mail:zhongls@igsnrr.ac.cn 收稿日期:2016-01-4 修回日期:2016-04-5 网络出版日期:2016-08-25 版权声明:2016《资源科学》编辑部《资源科学》编辑部 基金资助:国家自然科学基金项目(71233007)中国博士后科学基金(2014M561041;2015T80128)国家留学基金资助项目(201504910363) 作者简介: -->作者简介:王灵恩,男,山东沂南人,博士后,新西兰怀卡托大学访问****(博士后),主要从事资源生态与旅游资源研究。E-mail:wangle.10b@igsnrr.ac.cn
关键词:旅游消费;资源成本;环境影响;作用机理;研究框架 Abstract With continuous improvement in living standards and the rapid development of tourism,tourism consumption is becoming an important part of daily life and one kind of social phenomenon which is increasingly popular. Tourism consumption behavior is a typical off-site consumption process. While bringing positive tourism revenue to the local government and community,tourism consumption impacts regional resources and environments through large-scale population movement across regions. However, systematic research on the resource and environmental effects of tourism consumption are lacking and a theoretical research framework has not yet been formed. Here,we use document analysis and inductive methods to review research progress into the resource and environmental effects of tourism consumption. We elaborate on the analysis framework of resources and environmental effects of tourism consumption from the perspective of tourism consumption system of ‘six elements’. The mechanism of the resources and environmental impact of tourism consumption is summarized. We argue that tourism consumption drives new space -oriented resource consumption,and then changes the spatial distribution of the flow of resources. It can also lead to the centralization of resources and information flow to the tourism destination from the relatively decentralized source market. Tourism consumption affects regional resources and environments the following ways:(1)the characteristics of off-site consumption of tourism consumption has changed the pattern of the original allocation of resources;(2)changes in tourists’ consumption content changes the regional resource flow efficiency and supply structure;(3)resources provided by long distance driven by tourist consumption increase the environment impact of resources consumption;or (4)the burstability and centrality of tourism consumption challenges the integrated environmental carrying capacity of the tourism destination. We conclude by proposing specific research foci.
旅游餐饮消费是指旅游者在各类餐饮场所消耗已经生产出来的各种餐饮食品及餐饮服务的消费行为和过程[3]。从资源环境视角研究旅游餐饮消费主要从其有形的游客食物消费入手,即通过分析游客食物消费的规模和结构研究游客食物消费产生的资源环境效应。食物从生产、加工、分配到成为菜品被旅游目的地游客消费经历了完整的资源横向流动(区域变化)和纵向流动(形态变化)过程(表1)。这些资源成本和环境代价最终都隐含在游客消费的菜品中,因此必须从游客食物消费结构和规模入手进行逆向追溯,才能系统分析和核算游客食物消费产生的综合资源环境效应。由于中国菜系组分复杂,通过物质流方法建立系统的“菜品-原料”转化表,确定相应的转化组分和系数,就成为游客食物消费资源环境分析的关键。通过对菜品组分分析和食物隐含环境成本的差异,笔者前期的初步研究将游客所有消费菜品分解为猪肉、牛肉、羊肉、禽肉、水产品、蛋类、蔬菜、米饭、面食、酒水和水果等11类食物资源[25]。游客食物消费的资源环境效应正是通过对这11类食物资源的消耗来施加的。加上支持游客食物消费的场所建设和经营,旅游餐饮消费的资源环境效应分析主要从以下四方面入手:①餐饮场所加工食物原材料所消耗的水、燃气、电等能源资源成本和加工过程排放的油烟等气体排放产生的空气环境污染;②餐饮食物剩余和餐厨垃圾处理的环境代价;③消费的食物资源在生产、加工、运输、分配过程中所产生的间接资源成本和环境影响;④提供餐饮消费的场所建设和经营所消耗的资源和产生的环境影响。其中①、②为直接影响,③、④为间接影响。具体分析流程如图1所示。 Table 1 表1 表1旅游活动的能量消耗系数[85] Table 1Intensity of energy use associated with different tourist activities
大类
子项
参与者 总人数 比例 /%
旅游活动 能耗 系数 /(MJ/人次)
大类人均旅游活动能耗系数 /(MJ/人次)
旅游
植物园
18
12.3
9.87
吸引物
主题公园
36
13.8
自然观光
65
8.5
文化景观
15
3.5
项目娱乐
观看演出
16
16.6
15.59
节庆会展
9
13.8
体育休闲
垂钓
8
26.5
55.25
活动
潜水/游泳
37
67.1
冲浪/沙滩
29
35.1
温泉/休闲度假
13
13.0
高尔夫
4
95.1
游轮/游艇
2
438.3
新窗口打开 显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT 图1旅游餐饮消费的资源环境分析过程示意 -->Figure 1The resources and environmental analysis process of tourists, food consumption -->
2.2 旅游住宿消费
旅游住宿消费的资源环境影响强度主要取决于游客的住宿地点选择和个人住宿消费习惯。随着旅游目的地接待设施的不断完善,游客旅游住宿消费类型逐渐多样化,类型涵盖星级宾馆、度假村、连锁酒店、家庭旅馆、帐篷营地、游轮等多种类型。不同类型住宿消费所产生的资源环境影响存在差异,一方面,不同类型住宿场所的建设和经营维持产生的间接资源环境影响明显不同;另一方面,不同类型住宿设施内部给消费者提供的消费项目选择差异较大,从而导致游客的资源消耗类型和规模存在差异。如Stcfan 等研究发现,从每个床位的建成地面积看,五星级酒店为2000m2,家庭旅馆为50m2;每个床位的能源消耗量五星级酒店为110MJ,家庭旅馆仅为30MJ[72]。游客的住宿消费行为如洗漱、照明,使用空调、电视等均会产生能源消耗。对香港的研究发现,酒店的能源消耗中,空调占32%,照明占12%,电梯占5%,做饭和烧水占28%,其他电器占23%[73]。近年来旅游“六小件”等一次性消费物品的普遍推广会极大地降低资源利用效率而导致资源浪费。旅游住宿消费的资源环境影响主要包括:①游客在住宿设施内消费的水、电和一次性用品等所消耗的资源成本;②游客住宿消费产生的垃圾、污水处理所产生的环境影响;③住宿设施的建设和经营维持所消耗的能源资源成本和产生的环境影响。其中人均床铺所占用的土地面积和能源消耗量是目前分析各类住宿设施建设产生环境影响的重要指标[73,74]。分析内容如图2所示。 显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT 图2旅游住宿消费的资源环境影响示意 -->Figure 2The schematic diagram of resources and environmental impact of tourists, accommodation consumption -->
2.3 旅游交通消费
旅游交通消费是指旅游者往返旅游目的地和在目的地进行旅游活动所产生的交通消费,主要包括飞机、火车、汽车、轮船等方式,对应的交通设施主要有机场、火车站、汽车站、轮船码头、铁路、公路、停车场、桥梁、隧道等,一般不包括景区内部的观光交通和索道交通等消费内容。一些研究证明,在挪威[75]、瑞典[76]、德国[77]、奥地利[78]等发达国家与旅游休闲相关的交通运输占交通运输总量的50%。旅游交通消费的资源环境影响主要包括游客乘坐交通工具的直接能源消耗、温室气体排放和该类交通设施建设和维持所需产生的资源环境影响两部分。直接的交通运营方面主要包括能源的消耗、废弃物的排放、噪声、生境隔离等方面;间接的交通设施建设环境影响主要包括土地的占用、对生物的影响、水土流失、地表水质、噪声粉尘影响等方面(如图3所示)。游客旅游交通消费的直接资源环境影响强度和规模主要取决于游客的出行距离和乘坐的交通方式。杨新军等预测,观光旅游中有95%的能源需求用于交通运输,剩下的5%用于交流、活动等[79]。从全球看,旅游交通大约占总交通的1/3,大约50万km2的土地用于旅游交通建设[80]。在英国,许多未开垦的土地由于旅游公路的建设,而导致严重的水土流失[81]。除了旅游旺季的旅游专线、旅游专列等交通方式外,绝大多数交通方式是游客和其他类型乘客共同搭载和消费的,因此,准确的获取和辨别游客交通消费所占各类交通方式总体消费的比例是定量核算旅游交通消费资源环境效应的关键。 显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT 图3旅游交通消费的资源环境影响示意 -->Figure 3The schematic diagram of resources and environmental impact of tourists, traffic consumption -->
对于旅游目的地而言,旅游消费带来的不仅是资源消耗规模的增加,同时,由于游客消费内容的变化,目的地的资源消耗结构同样会发生改变。由于旅游消费过程中,当地居民和外地游客在生活习惯、身体和心理状态等方面存在较大差异,致使游客在食物消费、交通消费、住宿消费、购物消费、娱乐消费和游览消费等方面的消费行为和特征与本地居民的存在明显差异。本课题组针对拉萨市餐饮场所443桌消费者的调查发现[93],在当地居民和游客各类食物消费比例上,蔬菜都占最大比重,分别为30.9%和20.6%。当地居民主食消费中,面食占较大比重,占食物总量的10.3%,米饭仅占2.3%,外地游客主食则以米饭为主,占食物总量的19.5%。在肉类食物中,本地居民消费牛肉和羊肉较多,游客则多数偏好猪肉。同时,游客在食物消费量、浪费量等方面与本地居民存在明显差异(如图5所示)。为了满足游客消费需求,区域资源供给结构必然会随着旅游消费内容的变化而改变。 显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT 图52013年拉萨市游客与本地居民食物消费行为差异[93] -->Figure 5The difference of food consumption between tourist and local people -->
旅游活动的资源环境效应研究是资源生态学、旅游生态学和旅游地理学的重要研究内容,基础理论的顶层设计和总体的系统研究框架是该领域亟需解决的研究问题。目前,国内外****主要从游客在景区的游览活动入手进行旅游生态环境效应研究,尚未建立基于旅游消费系统的旅游活动资源环境效应研究体系。本文在总结已有研究基础上,从消费体系的视角初步构建了旅游消费资源环境效应分析框架,分析了旅游消费资源环境效应的作用和影响机理,最后提出了近期的重点研究方向,以期为该领域的深入发展提供借鉴和参考。 旅游活动的本质是游客对旅游目的地各类产品和服务的消费,从旅游消费体系的视角入手进行研究能够更加系统、全面地理解和刻画旅游活动产生的综合资源环境效应。旅游消费的资源环境效应主要通过游客“食、宿、行、游、购、娱”各类具体的消费行为对相关资源的占用和消耗来实现,旅游消费的资源成本及其产生的环境影响是旅游消费资源环境效应的核心。同时,由于旅游消费过程中资源消耗的规模、结构性变化以及异地性、季节性、集中性、突发性等特征而使旅游消费对区域资源分配、流动效率和旅游目的地环境承载能力产生影响。未来的研究应当从多尺度、多视角进行和加强旅游消费行为及其资源环境效应的实证研究和系统分析,以更好的为促进旅游可持续消费,为实现旅游目的地和中国旅游产业的可持续发展提供借鉴和理论支撑。 The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
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