徐志伟^,, 鹿化煜南京大学地理与海洋科学学院自然地理学系,南京 210023

Aeolian environmental change studies in the Mu Us Sandy Land, north-central China: Theory and recent progress

XU Zhiwei^,, LU HuayuDepartment of Physical Geography, School of Geography and Ocean Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China

收稿日期:2020-04-28修回日期:2020-10-26

基金资助:

国家自然科学基金项目(41871012) 科技部“全球变化及应对”重点专项(2016YFA0600503)

Received:2020-04-28Revised:2020-10-26

Fund supported:

National Natural Science Foundation of China(41871012) The Global Change Program of Ministry of Science and Technology of China(2016YFA0600503)

作者简介 About authors
徐志伟(1988-), 男, 江苏人, 副教授, 主要从事地貌过程与环境变化研究。E-mail: zhiweixu@nju.edu.cn




摘要
作为地球环境系统的重要组成部分,沙漠和沙地对气候变化响应敏感。沙漠沙地的环境变化关系到区域的可持续发展,并且通过一系列反馈作用,会影响区域与全球的气候环境。位于中国北方中部的毛乌素沙地是全球中纬度地区的典型沙地,其环境变化与全球其他沙漠沙地具有相似性和同步性。中国****对毛乌素沙地风沙环境变化的研究开展较早,在国内外有重要的影响。本文系统梳理了该方面的相关研究,围绕“风沙环境变化的过程与机制”这一核心问题,总结学术界在毛乌素沙地晚新生代形成发展、晚第四纪扩张与多旋回变化、全新世中期固定以及晚全新世沙丘再活化等方面取得的重要进展,尤其是获取了毛乌素沙地不同阶段风沙环境变化的关键证据,并据此提出“构造—轨道尺度上沙地形成与变化的全球温度变化驱动”“千年—百年尺度沙丘系统的非线性响应”等新的理论认识。未来应继续加强沉积证据的积累、新测试手段的拓展应用、基于过程分析的精细重建、数值模拟与预测等研究,着力探究风沙环境变化的动力学机制、人与干旱区环境复杂系统的耦合关系以及各圈层的互馈作用,这对于自然地理学学科传承、交叉学科的融合发展以及地球系统科学的理论构建都具有深远意义。
关键词： 风沙活动;地貌过程;环境重建;气候变化;干旱区;毛乌素沙地

Abstract
Sand seas and semi-arid dune fields, an important component of the earth environmental system, is sensitive to global climate change. Meanwhile, environmental changes in sand seas and dune fields influence regional sustainability, and can also affect regional climate and global environment through feedbacks of different scales. The Mu Us Sandy Land, located in the north-central part of China, is one of the typical semi-arid dune fields in the middle latitude. Its aeolian environmental change during the past is comparable and synchronous with some other sand seas and dune fields around the world. The study of aeolian environmental change in the Mu Us Sandy Land has a long history in China. This paper reviews and summarizes the theory and new findings in the study of processes and mechanisms of aeolian environmental change in the Mu Us Sandy Land. Important progresses have been made in recent decades focusing on the late Cenozoic evolution of the study area, its late Quaternary expansion and polycyclic changes, and dune field stabilization during the middle Holocene and dune reactivation since the late Holocene. Key sedimentary evidence has been found to support these new findings, and new theories about dune field evolution at the tectonic and orbital scales in response to global temperature change and nonlinear response of dune systems at millennial and centennial scales have been proposed. In the future, by collecting more crucial sedimentary evidence, the application of state-of-art technique, fine-scale and process-informed paleoenvironmental reconstruction, and numerical modeling and projection studies, our understanding can be significantly improved about the dynamical mechanisms of aeolian environmental change, the coupling of human-environment complex system in the drylands, and the processes and feedbacks in the Earth surface environmental system. This will also have great significance for the development in the field of physical geography, integration of interdisciplinary studies, and theory exploration of the Earth System Science.
Keywords：aeolian activity;geomorphological processes;environmental reconstruction;climate change;dryland;Mu Us Sandy Land


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本文引用格式
徐志伟, 鹿化煜. 毛乌素沙地风沙环境变化研究的理论和新认识. 地理学报, 2021, 76(9): 2203-2223 doi:10.11821/dlxb202109012
XU Zhiwei, LU Huayu. Aeolian environmental change studies in the Mu Us Sandy Land, north-central China: Theory and recent progress. Acta Geographica Sinice, 2021, 76(9): 2203-2223 doi:10.11821/dlxb202109012

1 引言

干旱与半干旱气候区占全球陆地面积的40%,全球约1/3的人口居住在这些地区^[1]。沙漠和沙地是干旱半干旱区最主要的地表景观类型之一。在气候变化的影响下,沙漠沙地的流动性、空间范围、风沙活动强度和植被覆盖度等会发生显著变化^[2,3,4],从而改变地表反射率,影响区域的辐射平衡和气候^[5,6,7]。另一方面,风沙活动排放的粉尘颗粒可以对气候系统产生直接和间接的辐射效应^[8,9],并且通过参与生物地球化学循环^[10,11],可能影响全球的气候和能量平衡^[12,13,14]。因此,深入理解干旱与半干旱地区的风沙环境变化及其对全球变化的响应与反馈机制,一直是学术界关注的热点问题。

中国北方分布有大面积的戈壁、沙漠及半干旱地区的沙地,总面积达130.8万km²,约占全国土地总面积的13.6%^[15,16]。这一地区生态环境脆弱、风沙灾害频发、土地荒漠化问题严重^[17]。毛乌素沙地是中国四大沙地之一,位于东亚夏季风影响的北部边缘,地理位置独特。与其接壤的黄土高原是全球变化研究的热点地区^[18];而作为黄土物质的潜在源区或中转站^[18,19,20],毛乌素沙地也保存有不同的沉积地层,是重建古气候与古环境变化的宝贵“档案”。另一方面,毛乌素沙地位于农牧交错带,是人与环境复杂系统协同演化较为复杂的区域之一。近年来该沙地的生态环境出现好转,防沙治沙工程的成效也引起了公众的格外关注。

作为全球中纬度地区半干旱沙地的典型代表,毛乌素沙地的环境变化研究开展较早。1934年程伯群曾在中文《科学》杂志上论述毛乌素沙地扩张的现象。1961年竺可桢在《人民日报》撰文提出毛乌素沙地在榆林地区长城沿线的侵入扩张问题。20世纪60—70年代中国科学院治沙队与北京大学等单位联合开展的毛乌素沙区综合考察,是在该地区开展的最早自然地理与资源等方面的系统性科考^[21]。1983年董光荣等指出毛乌素沙地以及位于鄂尔多斯高原北部的库布齐沙漠,是中国第四纪古风成沙比较发育并且最先发现的地区^[22,23]。之后,随着不同的专门化调查研究的开展,学术界在沙地的自然条件与改良利用^[21]、资源环境调查^[24]、气候环境变化^{[25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34]}、沙漠形成^{[35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42]}、沙漠化过程^{[17, 43-48]}、风沙地貌与制图^{[49,50,51,52]}等方面取得了一系列国内外领先的研究成果。

本文将结合近年来国内外科研进展以及本文作者的相关工作,着重论述毛乌素沙地过去风沙环境变化研究的若干进展。风沙活动是沙漠沙地最主要的地表过程之一^[53]。气候变化通过改变外部环境动力条件或地表状况,使得风沙活动的强度和特征发生变化,进而影响区域的生态环境。因此,沙漠沙地的风沙环境变化实际上反映了表层地球系统各圈层相互作用的结果^[54,55]。深入理解干旱半干旱区风沙环境变化的过程和规律,对于认识现代地理环境并进行合理利用和改造具有重要意义^[56]。开展不同的自然地理要素特征及其变化的成因机理研究,以及分析这种变化造成的影响和人类如何适应,也是中国自然地理学需要重点研究的科学问题^[57]。因此,风沙环境变化研究对于理解全球变化的区域响应和人类适应、构建自然地理学以及地球系统科学的理论体系有积极意义,而且可以为沙区资源的合理开发利用、沙漠化治理和预警等提供科学依据。

本文将首先简要介绍毛乌素沙地的自然地理现状,之后考虑到不同时间尺度上沙地环境变化的特征和影响因素存在差异,分别论述晚新生代的形成发展、晚第四纪的扩张和多旋回变化、全新世中期的沙地固定以及晚全新世的沙丘再活化等不同跨度内沙地演化的重要事件,这也分别对应了构造、轨道、千年—百年等不同时间尺度,总结毛乌素沙地风沙环境的阶段性特征,阐述“构造—轨道尺度上沙地形成与变化的全球温度变化驱动”“千年—百年尺度上沙丘系统的非线性响应”等方面的理论认识。

2 毛乌素沙地的自然地理现状

毛乌素沙地位于中国北方中部地区,面积约为4万km²（图1a）,在地理位置上处于鄂尔多斯高原向黄土高原的过渡地区（图1b）。沙地主要受到东亚季风的影响,降水集中在夏季。年均降水量约为200~450 mm,由东南向西北递减。年均温约为6~9 ℃,气温年较差大。受冬季风的影响,沙地春冬季的平均风速高,大风日数多,主导风向为西北风^{[49, 58-59]}。毛乌素沙地的风沙地貌景观主要表现为流动沙丘与固定—半固定沙丘镶嵌分布、共存的特征（图1c、1d）,其中流动沙丘多为横向沙丘和新月形沙丘,而固定沙丘多为有植物定植的抛物线沙丘^{[15, 49]}。沙地西南部分布有较多灌丛沙丘^[51]。固定和半固定沙丘上发育有油蒿群落和油蒿—柠条群落,在流动沙丘的局部地方有沙米、沙竹等先锋植物和一些灌木。沙地东南的部分固定沙丘上还出现臭柏、麻黄等群落。水分条件较好的丘间低地或滩地上有沙柳、酸刺等灌木以及芨芨草、盐爪爪等生长^[15]。沙丘主要朝东南方向移动,与起沙风的年合成风向相一致,移动速率多为每年2~3 m^{[49-50, 60]}。少数小型沙丘的移动速率较高,可达每年10 m左右。

图1

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图1毛乌素沙地的地理位置、自然地理景观和典型地层剖面

注：a. 地理位置;b. 区域卫星遥感影像图(白色虚线框表示沙地与黄土高原过渡带的大致位置,底图为GeoCover影像);c. 高分辨率遥感影像显示的流动沙丘与固定沙丘共存(底图来自Google Earth);d. 沙丘双稳态地貌景观;e. 沙地与黄土高原过渡带的地表覆沙景观;f.沙地内部大型沙丘开挖剖面中出露厚层风成沙和埋藏古土壤;g. 沙地东南部一处典型的河流—湖沼相沉积地层;h. 沙地与黄土高原过渡带黄土堆积中的厚层古风成沙(该层风成沙年代较老)。照片d~h分别拍摄于2019年7月、2010年4月、2011年5月、2012年5月和2010年5月。
Fig. 1The geographic location, landscape feature and typical stratigraphic sections of the Mu Us Sandy Land



毛乌素沙地主体海拔约1200~1600 m,自西北向东南倾斜,东南部河谷地区可低至1000 m以下^[52]。从地貌上看,流动、固定与半固定沙丘绵延分布于中西部干燥剥蚀高地、深入洼地的梁地、东南洼地和黄土丘陵区^[3]。包括现代沙丘、古风成沙以及砂质古土壤等在内的风成沉积是沙地的主体沉积（图1f）。在沙地东南部,第四纪松散沉积物相对较厚。无定河（上游为萨拉乌苏河）以及榆溪河、海流兔河、黑河则河等支流的河谷阶地上,可见较厚的河湖相地层（图1g）。在沙地东南部、南部与黄土高原的过渡带（或称边界带,图1b）,存在流沙入侵黄土沉积区的现象^[18]。流沙和黄土沉积有明显的沉积分异,在空间上呈现犬牙交错的特征^[61],黄土梁峁上出现地表覆沙景观^[62]（图1e）。这些流沙可能为毛乌素沙地的现代流沙入侵,也可能是黄土地层中的埋藏古风成沙被剥蚀后出露的（图1h）。因此,反映区域环境变化的沉积记录通常保存在3类重要的地貌部位上：① 沙地内部风成沙和埋藏砂质古土壤的互层沉积（图1f）,② 沙地东南部河谷阶地的河流—湖沼相地层（图1g）,③ 沙地与黄土高原过渡带的古风成沙—黄土古土壤序列（图1h）。

3 毛乌素沙地晚新生代的形成发展

厘清沙漠沙地的形成时代和演化过程是干旱区研究的核心问题之一。地层中的古风成沙是表征过去沙漠存在的可靠标志^[3]。例如,毛乌素沙地及黄土高原北部下伏的白垩系红色古风成沙丘岩^[63],是指示白垩纪沙漠出现的重要证据。然而,考虑到沙丘的移动及与之相联系的侵蚀、搬运与堆积可能是地表最为快速的地貌过程之一,沙丘沉积过程较为复杂,形成的沉积序列往往是不连续的。因此,直接从沙漠内部获取时间跨度长、相对连续的沉积序列有较大难度。对沙漠沙地长时间尺度的环境演化进行重建往往需要对沙丘的孪生产物——粉尘来进行研究。尤其中国北方沙漠沙地的下风向地区保存的厚层风成黄土堆积,是重建沙漠沙地长尺度环境演化的绝佳材料^{[18, 37, 40, 42, 64]}。

丁仲礼等系统报道陕北靖边郭家梁一个反映毛乌素沙地晚新生代环境演化历史的经典剖面^{[37, 65]}。该剖面位于沙地与黄土高原的过渡带,厚约280 m,是以黄土—红粘土为主的典型风成沉积剖面,在部分层位有古风成沙层出现。古地磁测定和地层对比分析结果显示该剖面基本保存了3.5 Ma以来的晚上新世红粘土沉积以及第四纪黄土古土壤旋回地层,并且根据沉积物的粒度变粗、砂组分含量增加等指标,认为毛乌素沙地在2.6 Ma、1.2 Ma和0.7 Ma前后有3次大的扩张^{[37, 65]}（图2a）。值得注意的是,地层中保存有末次冰期、倒数第二次冰期以及约1.2 Ma等时期的古风成沙层,指示了毛乌素沙地在第四纪不同冰期的扩张。约0.02-0.05 Ma、0.9 Ma和1.2 Ma等时期的粒度变粗分别对应于黄土序列中的马兰黄土（L1）、上粉砂层（L9）和下粉砂层（L15）,这也印证了黄土与沙漠在沉积动力上的联系^{[3, 20, 40, 65-66]}。

图2

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图2典型风成沉积剖面粒度变化揭示的晚新生代和晚第四纪毛乌素沙地风沙环境变化

注：郭家梁剖面数据来源于丁仲礼等^[65],石峁剖面数据来源于孙继敏等^[72]。
Fig. 2Aeolian environmental changes of the Mu Us Sandy Land during the late Cenozoic and late Quaternary revealed by sediment grain-size change from the typical aeolian deposits



毛乌素沙地的环境变化主要受到东亚季风环流系统的调控^{[3, 20, 40, 65-66]}。增强的夏季风为沙地带来更多降水,促进了植被生长和土壤发育,使得沙丘被固定。反过来,减弱的夏季风会导致植被退化,使得沙丘更易流动、活化。沙丘的移动速率受到起沙风的风力大小和频次的影响。东亚冬季风主控了毛乌素沙地的近地面风况,影响了西北方向风力的大小和强风频次。增强的冬季风有利于沙丘活化;减弱的冬季风则会降低沙丘的流动性,有利于植物生长和沙丘固定。诸多证据已揭示东亚季风气候与全球温度变化之间的联系^[67]。全球温度变化尤其是北半球高纬地区温度变化和高低纬温度梯度变化,可导致热带辐合带和西风等环流系统的纬向移动以及海陆温差变化,从而影响东亚季风气候^[40]。晚新生代以来,全球变冷和北半球冰量增多引起的季风环流调整和地表状况变化应当是调控长时间尺度上毛乌素沙地环境演化的主要因素^[42]。此外,青藏高原隆升等引起的区域环境格局调整也会影响季风气候和沙地环境的长期变化。因此毛乌素沙地在第四纪期间的几次扩张,可认为与北半球大冰盖的形成与扩张有关^{[42, 65]}。尤其是毛乌素沙地在2.6 Ma的初次扩张,与中国北方其他沙漠沙地在晚上新世—第四纪初的形成时间基本一致^[42],这反映了北半球冰量增多影响下,东亚夏季风减弱、冬季风增强,内陆干旱化加剧,驱动了毛乌素沙地的形成发展,即“构造尺度上沙地形成的全球温度变化驱动”。有研究^[68]甚至认为,黄土高原早期分布边界要比现今更北,第四纪以来黄土高原受到风力侵蚀持续南移,毛乌素沙地随之扩张,这也与第四纪以来全球变冷和北半球冰盖不断扩大有关。

4 晚第四纪毛乌素沙地的扩张和多旋回变化

毛乌素沙地在晚第四纪以来的风沙环境变化则受到了轨道尺度气候变化的影响,主要表现为气候干冷期流沙的扩张、沙丘的活化,以及气候暖湿期流沙面积的减少、沙丘的固定^{[31, 41, 62, 69-71]}。尤其是沙地与黄土高原过渡带厚层黄土堆积中间夹的细砂层,多为古风成沙沉积,反映了毛乌素沙地在第四纪期间的扩张^{[27, 62, 69-71]}。例如,榆林市南郊的蔡家沟剖面,是一个古风成沙、黄土和古土壤互层沉积的典型剖面,地层连续性较好,其沉积特征、磁化率曲线与黄土高原典型剖面所反映的古气候旋回基本吻合,与全球气候变化具有同步性^[27]。孙继敏等^[69]对该剖面进行了热释光年代测定,将其末次间冰期（约130 ka）以来的沉积地层与深海氧同位素阶段进行了直接对比,明确了地层中的古风成沙层对应于气候寒冷期,是冬季风加强条件下毛乌素沙地扩张的产物^[70,71]。

利用石峁剖面,孙继敏等^[36]重建了过去约50万年以来毛乌素沙地的风沙环境变化历史^[72]。石峁剖面记录了13层风成沙层,代表了13次大规模的沙地扩张^[36]（图2b）。与Kapp等^[68]认识不同的是,黄土与古风成沙表现为互层堆积,并且风成沙层常为尖灭的夹层^{[27, 62]}。这表明随着北半球冰盖的扩大,虽然毛乌素沙地在第四纪的整体趋势是持续扩张的;但由于气候波动,沙地扩张不是一直进行的^[20],沙地与黄土高原的边界发生过多次摆动^{[27, 36, 61]}。Xu等^{[20, 33]}研究表明,毛乌素沙地在过渡带上扩张与收缩的交替旋回与轨道—亚轨道尺度的季风气候变化密切相关。其中,最近一次沙地扩张发生在末次冰期,尤其是在末次冰期极盛期（LGM）,沙地向东、南扩张,扩张边界距离现代边界仅约30~50 km^{[33, 62, 73]}（图3a）。发育在马兰黄土之上的一套古风成沙层记录了这次扩张事件^{[62, 73]}。这套风沙标志层有时以埋藏沙丘体在地层中出露,与下伏马兰黄土常有一侵蚀面,表现为不整合接触关系（图4a）。而在距今15000年前后,相当于北半球Heinrich 1（H1）冷事件的结束和Bølling-Allerød （BA）暖期的开始,沙地与黄土高原的边界逐渐向西北退缩,这套末次冰期的风成沙层之上逐渐被冰消期黄土所覆盖^[20,33]（图4a）。冰消期黄土厚度多为1~2 m,其上常发育黑色古土壤层（多为全新世黑垆土层）。

图3

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图3毛乌素沙地在末次盛冰期的扩张和全新世中期的固定

注：a. 末次盛冰期的扩张边界;b. 全新世中期(大暖期)的固定。本图引自徐志伟博士学位论文^[73],数据统计截至2014年12月,含部分未发表数据。图b中的虚线表示在全新世中期沙丘大部分被固定、流沙面积大幅度减少,虚线和箭头示意有流动沙丘广泛分布的活跃沙漠处于更加西北的位置。
Fig. 3Expansion of the Mu Us Sandy Land during the LGM and its stabilization during the middle Holocene

图4

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图4过去20 ka毛乌素沙地风沙环境变化的典型剖面及测年结果

注：a. LP03剖面,毛乌素沙地与黄土高原过渡带埋藏古风成沙及黄土古土壤沉积;b. MU11-42剖面,毛乌素沙地内部风成沙—古土壤互层沉积;数据引自[20, 34]。
Fig. 4Typical sedimentary sections recording aeolian environmental change in the Mu Us Sandy Landduring the past 20 ka and the OSL dating results



毛乌素沙地东南部河谷洼地的风沙—河湖相沉积地层中同样保存了晚第四纪环境变化的多旋回特征。这套地层以萨拉乌苏河两岸广泛出露的“萨拉乌苏组”为典型,其中富含生物化石,并且出现古人类化石和大量石器,是中国北方晚更新世河湖相的标准地层之一^[74]。1924年德日进和桑志华报道了该地的考古挖掘^[75],之后,中国****对萨拉乌苏组进行详细的地层划分和沉积分析^{[76,77,78,79,80]}。尽管学术界对这套地层的年代等可能有不同看法^[81,82,83],但它无疑是记录晚第四纪沙地环境变化的宝贵档案^{[77, 84]}。以李保生等为代表的****围绕这套厚层堆积开展了系统的环境重建工作^{[28, 84-88]},发现典型剖面中记录了15万年以来至少27个风成沙与河湖相和古土壤交替构成的沉积旋回^[28],并利用生物化石和地球化学元素等指标,论述了末次间冰期以来环境变化的多旋回特征,发现了末次间冰阶以来毛乌素沙地亚轨道至千年尺度上的气候波动与格陵兰冰芯记录的温度变化有较好的对应关系^{[85,86,87,88]},这同样也反映了毛乌素沙地受到北半球高纬地区温度变化的影响。

对风成沉积或河湖相沉积的堆积年代进行准确测定,是解读其古环境信息的必要前提。中国****在20世纪80年代就尝试利用释光技术（当时为热释光）测定沙丘的绝对年龄^[89]。孙继敏等较早系统报道了毛乌素沙地古风成沙的热释光年龄^[69,70]。之后,****利用不断发展的光释光技术（OSL）测定中国北方沙地古沙丘的年龄^{[90,91,92,93,94,95,96]}。考虑到沙丘沉积的不连续性和“片段性”特征,鹿化煜等^{[31, 97-100]}通过测定多个不同点位的沙丘年龄,利用独立年代控制对接“片段”沉积,从而确定中国北方沙地的活化历史和气候干湿变化;之后通过开展“拉网式”考察,在大量样品年代测定和地层对比的基础上,研究风沙环境的时空变化^{[34, 41]}。

最近的OSL测年结果表明,毛乌素沙地在LGM以来的流动性变化历史与全球其他沙漠沙地具有相似性^{[101,102,103,104]},特别是在中国北方沙地、北美中央大平原沙地、欧洲古沙带、非洲南部西海岸沙地等中纬度沙地普遍存在“LGM时期风沙记录保存较少”的现象^{[33, 101-104]},这挑战了“LGM时期全球风沙活跃”的传统认识^{[2, 4]}。事实上,反映毛乌素沙地第四纪风沙环境变化的石峁、蔡家沟等剖面和记录LGM时期沙地扩张的LP03、LP19、LP12、LP17等剖面,大多位于沙地与黄土高原的过渡带（图5）。沙地内部,由于冰期强烈的风蚀作用以及沙丘的活化与“翻新”,完整连续的第四纪风沙沉积序列常难以保存^{[41, 50, 105]},甚至相比末次冰消期,在盛冰期的沙丘记录并不多见（图5）。也就是说,毛乌素沙地在LGM时期扩张,但记录这一时期风沙活动的沉积物往往保存在一些特殊的地貌部位,如下风向沙地扩张边界附近的黄土地层中^{[33, 62]}（图4a）,或者是沙地内部的寒冻裂隙（砂楔）中^{[25, 33]}。通过风沙地貌现代过程研究,Xu等^[50]提出风沙物质的保存和净累积量与区域风蚀强度存在密切关联,在强烈的风蚀作用下流沙不断翻转活化,使得沙丘的光释光年龄更倾向于最后一次活化的年龄。在明确风沙沉积古环境意义的基础上,Xu等^[33]提出“LGM时期风沙记录保存少恰恰反映了这一时期的风沙活跃”的新认识。这一结果回答了全球中纬度地区沙漠沙地普遍缺少LGM时期风沙记录的成因,并且明确指出在冰期—间冰期尺度上,北半球高纬地区温度和冰量变化通过调控大气环流,影响了全球中纬度地区沙漠沙地的流动性变化。

图5

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图5毛乌素沙地风成沙和古土壤年龄的频率分布

注：本图引自[73],数据统计截至2014年12月,含部分未发表数据。沙地外围主要指毛乌素沙地与黄土高原的过渡带。
Fig. 5Frequency distribution of the ages of the aeolian sand and paleosol from the Mu Us Sandy Land



此外,考虑到毛乌素沙地与下风向黄土沉积区的联系^{[66, 97]},沙地边界的摆动势必影响粉尘的释放以及黄土高原的粉尘堆积。高密度光释光测年结果^{[106,107,108]}表明黄土高原的黄土堆积具有点位特异性（site-specific）;但从空间上看,不同点位的黄土沉积过程是可对比的,其时空变化呈现出一定规律,尤其是在轨道—亚轨道尺度上,黄土沉积速率与沙地边界的变化同步响应于东亚季风环流变化^[20]。Xu等^[20]指出沙地与黄土高原过渡带的粉尘堆积存在“跷跷板现象”,即在LGM时期过渡带以流沙扩张、侵蚀为主,与之对应的是黄土高原主体部分粉尘堆积速率较高;而在距今约15000年、H1结束时,随着全球温度、尤其是北半球高纬地区温度回升,夏季风逐渐增强、冬季风减弱,中国北方区域干旱化减弱,沙地边界退缩、粉尘快速堆积于过渡带（图4a）,黄土高原主体部分的粉尘沉积速率则明显下降^[20]。这一结果从空间变化的角度进一步明确了沙漠沙地地表过程与黄土沉积的密切联系,并且它们的耦合变化同样反映了“轨道—亚轨道尺度上沙地变化的全球温度变化驱动”。

5 全新世中期毛乌素沙地的固定

上文所指出的构造—轨道尺度上的环境重建剖面大多位于毛乌素沙地与黄土高原的过渡带,以及东南部的河谷洼地。在沙地内部,虽然较难保存连续的沉积剖面,但在现代沙丘内部、流沙覆盖之下,古风成沙“片段”沉积较为发育^{[22-23, 73, 97]}（图4b）。光释光测年结果表明这些古风成沙多为末次冰消期以来保留下来的,年龄大多年轻于15 ka。甚至有相当数量的古沙丘是在早全新世时发育的,光释光年龄集中在约10 ka（图5）。这反映了在末次冰消期至早全新世,随着区域风蚀强度的下降,沙丘流动性开始减弱^[50],但沙地内部仍然以流沙分布为主,大部分地区风沙依然较为活跃。

毛乌素沙地内部还保存一套重要的地层——砂质古土壤层^{[22-23, 31, 39, 62, 66, 109-110]}。这套地层常以埋藏古土壤的形式保存在沙丘内（图1f）,有时被侵蚀暴露在地表,形成蚀余古土壤或风蚀残丘（墩）^{[62, 73]}。毛乌素沙地的砂质古土壤层常与风成沙互层沉积（图4b）,多为黑色或灰黑色,厚约几十厘米至1 m,前人研究认为其大多形成于全新世的不同时期。该套砂质古土壤中尤以在末次冰消期和早全新世古沙丘上的一层黑色古土壤最为发育（图1f）^{[62, 73]},其质地略微固结,多为团粒或块状结构,有时见白色碳酸盐结膜或假菌丝体,亦见虫孔或植物根孔。发育在下伏古风成沙丘上的古土壤层,多数保留了原始沙丘形态特征^{[62, 73]}（图4b）。董光荣等^[22,23]较早指出砂质古土壤实质上是古流动沙丘经过生草成壤后形成的,代表了沙丘的固定,因而有颇为重要的环境指示意义。

在年代测定方面,虽然古土壤的有机质含量较沙层高,在一定程度上可以利用¹⁴C等方法进行测年,但是开展大量样品测试尚有一定难度。光释光测年技术也可以用于古土壤层的年代测定（图4b）,主要基于以下几点原因^[34]。① 研究表明中国北方沙地保存的较厚砂质古土壤多为加积型土壤^{[66, 95, 111]},即在土壤形成发育过程中不断有少量风成沙或粉尘物质加入,土壤层向上加积。砂质古土壤中有时可见加积纹层组成的水平层理^{[22-23, 62, 73]}。这也解释了为何在短短几百/千年的时间内土壤层就可以达到一定厚度,并且有一定量的有机质得到保存。② 虽然在古土壤发育地点的沙丘被固定,但其上风向仍然有风沙活动,从而不断提供风沙、粉尘等物质,使得土壤向上加积。③ 根据光释光测年原理,对古土壤中的石英等矿物颗粒的释光信号进行测量时,记录的是这些颗粒最后一次曝光后埋藏保存的时间。虽然古土壤层的加积（沉积）速率相比风沙层较缓慢,但古土壤的高密度OSL测年结果显示其年龄也是向上变年轻的^{[50, 112]},这符合加积地层的沉积特征。④ 在土壤发育过程中,生物扰动等作用可能导致矿物颗粒释光信号“曝光清零”,若此时土壤被埋藏而后成为古土壤,其OSL年龄也恰恰反映了土壤形成发育时的年龄^[112,113]。⑤ 一些古土壤层最底部的年龄有时接近于其母质风沙层的年龄,这表明下伏沙丘被快速固定后,土壤便开始发育。这一年龄也代表了沙丘被固定的大致时间^[50]。⑥ 有研究同时利用¹⁴C和OSL等方法测定古土壤层的年龄^{[112, 114]},其结果基本一致,并且符合地层层序,这也间接表明了OSL技术测定古土壤年龄的可行性。

综上考虑,Xu等^{[34, 62, 73]}对毛乌素沙地的埋藏古土壤和蚀余古土壤开展了测年和环境代用指标的系统研究,发现沙地内的砂质古土壤多发育在全新世,尤以8~6 ka前后最为集中,并且分布广泛（图3b）,而此时区域内的风沙活动非常有限（图5）。根据大量的地层证据和年代数据,Xu等^{[62, 73]}推断在全新世中期的气候适宜期（又称大暖期）毛乌素沙地大部分被固定,植被覆盖度要高于末次冰期和现今状况。这一结果验证了前人关于全新世沙地固定的一些重要推论^{[29, 35, 115-116]};另一方面,该研究明确指出了沙地大面积固定的时间发生在全新世中期,并利用环境代用指标数据重建了当时的植被和土壤等地表特征^[73]。

需要指出的是,毛乌素沙地在全新世中期的固定,并不代表沙地与黄土高原的边界发生了移动。这一点与末次盛冰期不同。也就是说,LGM时期流沙扩张到了黄土高原的过渡带上,但在15 ka之后（约15—10 ka）,扩张到沙地与黄土高原过渡带上的流动沙丘逐渐被固定,其上堆积了冰消期黄土。从某种意义上说,沙地与黄土高原的边界在15 ka之后开始退缩,并且在10 ka左右到达现今的位置^{[33, 73]}。进入全新世后,沙地内部的流沙开始被固定;但是在全新世早期,沙地内部仍然分布有一定规模的流动沙丘。在全新世中期,大部分沙丘被固定。因此,图3b中所示的虚线边界不是指沙地退缩的边界,而是示意沙地内部大量沙丘被固定、流动沙丘的面积大幅度缩减。虽然在局部地区可能仍有小部分片状流沙,但其面积非常有限。沙地内部主要表现为有一定植被覆盖的固定沙地景观,或者说温带草原或局部偏干旱的灌木化草原景观,局部水分条件较好的地方还可能出现一些乔木林或疏林地。从另一方面讲,图3b中所示的虚线和箭头还表示流动沙丘广泛分布的活跃沙漠处于位置更加西北的内陆腹地。

全新世中期毛乌素沙地的大面积固定与这一时期的季风增强有密切关联^{[34, 41, 62, 73]}。不同的沉积证据均表明影响中国北方环境的夏季风自末次盛冰期以来逐步增强^{[117,118,119,120,121]},尤其是季风降水分别在15 ka前后^[122,123]和8 ka前后^[117,118]呈现出“两步增加”的态势^[121]。中国北方的岱海^[124]、达里诺尔湖^[125,126]以及腾格里沙漠^[127]、巴丹吉林沙漠^[128,129]和乌兰布和沙漠^[130]古湖泊的水位在8—6 ka期间达到了高湖面的位置。毛乌素沙地与黄土高原过渡带上约15 ka起黄土“替代”风沙开始堆积,全新世之后发育古土壤。这种“两步式”地貌发育^[20]与季风的“两步式”增强基本一致。毛乌素沙地内部的湖泊—沼泽在15 ka和6 ka前后也呈现出“两步式”的发育扩张^{[30, 131]}。毛乌素沙地大面积固定发生于8—6 ka,其中以6 ka左右固定沙丘的比例达到最高（图5、文献[34]的图3a）。相比季风降水的逐渐增强,沙丘的固定存在一定的迟滞^{[31, 34]};不过从整体趋势上看,毛乌素沙地在全新世早期到中期的逐渐固定,以及在全新世后期的沙丘再活化,与季风降水变化是一致的^[34]。增强的夏季风带来了大量降水,流动沙丘上开始生草成壤,沙丘逐渐被固定。与此同时,冬季风在全新世期间均处于较弱的位置^{[132,133,134,135]},风力的减弱也会有利于沙丘的固定。

6 晚全新世以来毛乌素沙地的沙丘再活化

晚全新世以来,在夏季风减弱、中国北方气候逐步干旱化的背景下,毛乌素沙地植被开始退化,固定沙丘再活化,流动沙丘的比例逐渐增多^[34]。这一过程在不同点位的沙丘沉积地层中都有所体现^{[62, 73, 114, 136-138]}。不过引起注意的是,从千年—百年尺度上看,即使距离不远、环境背景状况相当,不同点位上沙丘发生再活化的起始时间可能存在差异。例如,有些点位的固定沙丘在中全新世的晚期就开始活化,而有的固定沙丘一直持续到晚全新世的中期才开始活化。另外,有些沙丘在晚全新世还经历了多次固定—活化—再固定—再活化等反复,并且不同点位上沙丘变化的旋回并不一致。这种强烈的空间异质性不仅出现在晚全新世,从早全新世到中全新世沙丘活化到固定转换的轨迹（如时间、速率等）也存在显著差异。这表明,即使在同一沙地,不同点位的沙丘对气候变化的响应存在差异。这种在千年—百年尺度上展现出来的空间异质性在科尔沁沙地^[95,96]等中国北方其他沙地^{[50, 139]}、非洲卡拉哈里沙漠和纳米布沙漠^[140]、北美洲中央大平原沙地^[141]以及澳大利亚沙漠^[142]等其他大陆的沙漠沙地也有报道。这同样反映出毛乌素沙地的环境变化与全球其他沙漠沙地具有的相似性。

例如,SGD、TK、ZBT和JJ 4个剖面均位于毛乌素沙地的东部、东南部,具有相似的气候与环境特征,沉积速率也相近^[34]。基于山西高山湖泊公海孢粉资料重建的过去15 ka以来降水变化是表征中国北方夏季风强度最具代表性的定量重建序列之一^[118]。从毛乌素沙地SGD等4个剖面响应季风降水变化的过程来看,在局域尺度上,各个点位沙丘状态（流动或固定）的变化在相对较短时间内发生,表现出突变特征,但突变发生的时间节点并不同步,沙丘状态的演化轨迹也有明显差异。对毛乌素沙地大量沙丘的沉积序列进行基于过程分析的点位特异性重建与集成,获得全新世沙丘演化图谱^[34]。如图6a所示,在同一时间窗口期,流动沙丘与固定沙丘可以在不同点位同时存在。这一现象与现今毛乌素沙地流动沙丘与固定沙丘共存（共生）的景观是相一致的,即在过去一万两千年以来毛乌素沙地就存在与现今类似的沙丘双稳态共存的现象。

图6

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图6毛乌素沙地全新世沙丘双稳态演化图谱及理论模型

注：本图改自文献[34]; 图a不同的行列或短杠表示不同点位沙丘的状态及转换特征,在同一时间窗口内,流动沙丘和固定沙丘可以同时存在,在过去12 ka内不同点位沙丘状态的转换存在显著差异;图b蓝色实线代表在不同外部环境条件下的沙丘稳定状态(或称稳定平衡线),蓝色虚线为不稳定状态,在一定的外部环境条件(如②、③、④)存在双稳态,处于其他状态的沙丘会朝向稳定状态演化,F1和F2为分岔点(Tipping Points),沙丘从一种稳定状态转变到另一种稳定状态时(如红色虚线所示),称为稳态转换,“山谷中的小球”示意在不同的外部环境条件下沙丘所处的吸引域,其大小可以表征沙丘被扰动后的恢复力,其中在②、③、④条件下存在2个吸引域,代表2种稳定状态,随着外部环境条件的改变或者受到强的干扰(如红色实线所示),沙丘会发生稳态转换,沙丘在临界点上的稳态转换往往表现为突变。
Fig. 6Temporal pattern of the shifts in dune activity during the Holocene at individual sites from the Mu Us Sandy Land and theoretical model for dune bistability



事实上,在半干旱地区,沙丘可以呈现出流动或固定等不同状态（图1c、1d）。流动沙丘与固定沙丘的植被覆盖度和流动性水平差异极大,却可以在相同的地表环境中长期共存,其共存机理是沙丘地貌和环境变化研究中悬而未决的科学难题^{[143,144,145,146]}。近年来研究表明生态、气候等复杂系统可能具有“多稳态（Alternative Stable States）”的特征^[147,148]。地貌系统与生态、气候等圈层的相互作用密切。流动沙丘和固定沙丘稳定共存于相同的环境条件下,这表明沙丘的形成发育可能也具有多稳态（或称双稳态,Bistability）的特征。Xu等^[34]利用中国北方的毛乌素、浑善达克和科尔沁等沙地144处风沙沉积、500多个独立地层年代数据和古气候重建—模拟资料,开展基于过程分析的点位特异性重建与集成,获得了这些沙地过去12 ka的生态—地貌景观的长期演化轨迹^[34]（分辨率达到500~1000 a）。研究发现随着外部环境条件的渐变,沙丘从一种稳定状态（流动或固定）演化到另一种稳定状态（称为“稳态转换”,Critical Transition）的响应轨迹通常表现为迟滞以及在临界点上的突变等非线性特征^[34]（图6b）。受到季风降水变化的影响,在局部沙丘状态的变化在较短时间内发生;而在全域尺度上,由于局部空间异质性特征相互抵消,这些沙地的总体状态演化表现为渐变特征,固定沙丘面积与全新世季风降水的变化趋势趋近一致。不过二者之间仍然存在迟滞现象^[34]。这一结果发现了半干旱区沙丘发育存在多稳态转换,并提出了由气候—生态—地貌等构成的风沙环境系统属于复杂系统的一种,在千年—百年尺度上存在局域突变性、全域渐变性与迟滞性的非线性演化过程。

研究同时发现,半干旱区沙丘双稳态这一独特生态—地貌现象的形成及状态突变主要与植被、土壤与风沙活动之间的多种正反馈作用有关,并且受到生态系统内部过程的调节^[34]。局地不同的生态系统内部过程及其与地貌的相互作用,是解释局域尺度上沙丘响应气候变化存在强烈空间异质性的关键^[149,150]。沙地环境在局域和全域尺度上响应季风变化的迟滞性,与多重尺度上气候—植被—土壤—风沙活动的一系列正反馈过程有关^[34]。极端降水或干旱的强度与频次变化、风力大小、地下水位高低^{[151, 163]}等外部环境条件的改变或人为干预达到一定程度时,都可能触发沙丘状态的突变（图6b）。沙丘的快速变化会对当地生态环境带来显著影响,并且多稳态的迟滞特征意味着沙丘一旦活化将很难恢复。因此,沙丘系统非线性演化研究对于干旱半干旱区防沙治沙和区域生态文明建设具有重要意义,特别是在澄清干旱区土地快速退化的触发条件并进行早期预警等方面可发挥关键作用。

在探讨毛乌素沙地晚全新世再活化的影响机制时,必不可少需要探讨人为因素的影响。毛乌素沙地位于农牧交错带,历史时期开垦较早,相比中国北方其他沙漠沙地有较高的人口密度,开垦、放牧、樵采等人为活动对沙地环境的影响较大,人与环境的关系较为复杂^[152]。自20世纪中期以来,学术界对毛乌素沙地是否属“人造沙漠”等讨论颇为激烈^{[153,154,155,156,157,158,159,160,161,162,163,164,165,166]}。“人造沙漠”的观点主要依据考古和历史文献记载的区域环境史等资料,认为毛乌素沙地的流沙（尤其是东南部等地）主要是历史时期的人类活动造成的^{[153,154,155,156]}。特别是近几百年来,不合理的土地开垦、过度放牧以及滥伐滥樵等导致植被破坏、土壤风蚀加剧,造成土地沙化。除此之外,人类活动可能会增加火灾的频率和强度,使得植被易遭破坏,增加沙漠化发展的风险^[167]。诚然,毛乌素沙地地层中的埋藏古风成沙,在土壤和上覆地层受侵蚀后,极易出露到地表,形成“就地起沙”^[153,154]。构成了毛乌素沙地现代沙丘的主要沙源。因此在讨论毛乌素沙地现今的土地退化（沙漠化）或者是植被恢复（逆沙漠化）等过程时,除气候变化的背景外,不合理的土地利用方式或者是防沙治沙、生态修复工程等有益措施都可能起到不可忽视的作用^{[43-44, 48-49, 58, 168-169]}。

事实上,毛乌素沙地的人类活动有较久远的历史。考古证据表明,自史前时代,人类就在萨拉乌苏河流域活动^{[75, 170-171]}。沙地东缘与黄土高原过渡带的石峁遗址,位于神木县石峁村秃尾河东北侧的山峁上,距今约4 ka历史,可能是目前中国已发现的同时代规模最大的城址^[172]。十六国时期匈奴人后裔赫连勃勃在沙地南部所建大夏国都城——统万城,是中国北方较早的都城,距今有1.6 ka历史^[173]。就目前的研究来看,史前时期人类的生存与定居易受气候变化的影响,人类需要技术革新甚至迁移等方式去适应一些不可逆的气候环境变化^{[151, 174-175]}。更多证据表明人类活动对毛乌素沙地的环境影响可能主要发生在汉朝以后^{[34, 41, 110, 176]}。尤其是距今约2 ka之后随着人口的急剧增加、技术的进步,人类在沙地内的定居范围开始扩大,其影响也日益增加^{[41, 164, 174, 176]}。

因此不应忽视近2000 a以来的人类活动对沙地局地环境的影响,甚至在一些降水增多的时期,由于人口密度增加,不合理的土地利用方式造成的尘暴活动反而在增强^[176]。不过,需要注意的一点是,虽然部分环境史资料着重描述了沙地内部城郭建成时周边良好的环境,但是沉积证据表明沙地内流动沙丘很早就已出现,在晚全新世以来就发生了沙丘再活化^[34]。历史地理的综合研究也表明毛乌素沙地很早便有沙草共存的荒漠与荒漠草原景观^{[158,159,160]}。一些遗址或城址堆积层中的夹沙层,被认为是取自周边的风成沙^[164],这也表明区域内的风沙活动可能一直存在。因此,虽然不合理的人类活动可能加速了过去两千年的沙漠化进程,但是其影响更多是体现在局地环境中的。根据多稳态理论,即使微弱的扰动可能使得沙丘发生快速变化,并且沙丘一旦活化将很难恢复^[34]。因此,在不考虑气候波动或其他因素的前提下,人类活动对局地沙丘的影响在某种程度上很可能是不可逆的。尽管如此,从全域尺度上看,沙地环境演化与季风降水变化的总体趋势一致,晚全新世的沙地环境变化响应季风降水仍然存在迟滞效应;并且即便在晚全新世可能有更多人为干预的背景下,其活化程度依然低于早全新世^[34]。据此,我们认为人类活动的影响是叠加在气候变化背景之上的;而在气候适宜期适时科学开展防沙治沙、生态修复等工程措施,对生态环境的好转可能会起到事半功倍的效果^[48]。

综上所述,本文认为毛乌素沙地现代地表景观的形成与晚全新世的沙丘再活化紧密相关。与此同时,中国北方的其他沙漠沙地在晚全新世可能经历了类似的环境变化历史^{[55, 96, 151, 177-178]}。中国北方沙漠沙地保存有丰富的沙丘沉积地层,记录了不同区域的环境变化信息,是重要的“古环境档案”,值得进一步深入探索。

7 结语

近年来,随着关键沉积证据的积累、测年等新技术方法的应用、地貌学与古气候学、生态学等的交叉融合以及理论认识水平的提高,学术界在毛乌素沙地晚新生代形成发展、晚第四纪扩张与多旋回变化、全新世中期固定以及晚全新世沙丘再活化等几方面取得了新的认识。基于不同阶段风沙环境变化的沉积证据,学术界发现毛乌素沙地在晚新生代的形成发展、晚第四纪的扩张和多旋回变化受到了构造—轨道尺度上全球温度变化调控的东亚季风气候变化的影响;而在全新世中期固定和晚全新世活化过程中,一方面季风气候起到了主控作用,另一方面在近两千年以来人类活动的影响凸显,并且在千年—百年尺度上沙丘系统存在局域突变性、全域渐变性与迟滞性的非线性演化特征。作为全球中纬度地区的典型半干旱沙地,毛乌素沙地的风沙环境变化与全球其他沙漠沙地具有相似性和同步性;通过“解剖麻雀”,这些新的理论认识对于理解其他干旱区的环境变化有重要的借鉴意义。

学术界在毛乌素沙地不同尺度上风沙环境变化的关键证据、过程重建与机制分析等方面取得了突破,这对于自然地理学的学科传承、新兴交叉学科的融合发展以及地球系统科学的理论构建具有积极意义。毛乌素沙地环境梯度大、自然景观丰富、人地关系复杂、气候变化影响显著。目前,如何量化人类活动并区分不同气候要素对沙地环境的影响等问题,还需要进一步加强环境变化的高分辨率重建、尤其是晚全新世风沙环境变化等方面的研究;对当前风沙环境变化规律的理解,以及未来演化趋向的预估等还存在不确定性,这需要更为深入探讨半干旱区风沙环境变化的非线性过程及其动力学机制。因此,在未来研究工作中,应当进一步加强不同区域沉积证据的积累、新测试手段的拓展应用、基于过程分析的精细重建、动力学模型的构建与模拟预测等交叉和综合研究。当前,毛乌素沙地又是生态环境治理的重点区域之一。不断深入理解毛乌素沙地环境变化的动力学机制、人与环境复杂系统的协同演化规律具有深远意义,在应对气候变化、生态文明建设和区域可持续发展等方面也可以发挥关键作用。

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