, 赵振斌, 张铖, 陈诚, 陈幺陕西师范大学旅游与环境学院,西安 710062
Spatial features of preference difference and conflict potential among multi-groups in tourism community: A case of Tangyu town in Xi'an
CHUYujie, ZHAOZhenbin, ZHANGCheng, CHENCheng, CHENYao通讯作者:
收稿日期:2015-07-22
修回日期:2015-12-6
网络出版日期:2016-06-30
版权声明:2016《地理学报》编辑部本文是开放获取期刊文献，在以下情况下可以自由使用：学术研究、学术交流、科研教学等，但不允许用于商业目的.
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1 引言
乡村旅游的开发,使得乡村社区往往成为多利益群体竞争的场所。不同群体对开发活动采取不同的主张,导致社会冲突的发生[1-3],成为制约乡村旅游发展的重要因素。冲突是由两个或多个群体间利益、目标或价值的不相容引起的效应,可以导致人群的负面体验、对立或对抗[4-5]。态度反映人的主观倾向和行为可能,由于其可测量性成为良好的冲突指示指标[6-7]。态度可以指示冲突,冲突也必然包含态度的反映,态度与冲突的研究成为乡村社会与政治研究中的重要方面[8-9],也成为乡村旅游研究的热点[10]。在与社区旅游开发相关的态度与冲突问题的研究中,最著名的就是Doxey在1975年提出的愤怒指数。他指出,社区居民对于游客的态度会随着旅游开发而变化,从愉悦发展到冷淡,并逐渐过渡到愤怒与反抗[11],导致冲突的发生。由于社区居民是乡村旅游中的受影响者,随后的态度研究也主要围绕社区居民态度展开,具体包括态度的测量,如态度的方向与强度的测量[12-14];态度的影响因素,如参与程度[15]、居住距离[16]、社区旅游发展阶段[17]、社会认同与感知文化距离[18]等对社区居民态度的影响。对与旅游相关的社区冲突的研究注重分析多人群的相互作用,研究内容主要包括冲突的界定和类型,如对人际冲突和价值冲突的界定（interpersonal and social value conflict）[19-20],将冲突划分为群间冲突和群内冲突（out-group and in-group conflict）[21],以及对称与不对称冲突（symmetrical-asymmetrical conflict）[22]等;冲突的解释分析,如用社会交换理论[23]、社会表征理论[24]、地方性理论[25]和框架建构理论（framing theory）[26]对冲突的解释;冲突的管控,如通过空间区划[27]、公众教育[28]、社区参与[29]、利用控制[22]的方法减少冲突。这些研究主要从社会学、心理学等视角入手,为认识旅游社区发展中的复杂社会现象提供了途径。
虽然冲突的产生源于多种社会因素,但从土地利用冲突的角度来看,冲突原因可被界定为两个或多个人群对土地资源的竞争、或针对土地资源或某一土地利用活动价值取向的差异[30-31]。由于土地资源和土地利用都有明显的空间属性,因此,多人群的态度表达及其冲突产生也具有空间约束性。这种空间特征在一些研究中被揭示出来,如社区居民对旅游开发的反对态度不是均匀分布的,而是集中于自己居住区的周围,表现出了一种空间上的邻避效应[32-33]。可见,从完整理解社区冲突的角度来考虑,认识态度和人群冲突的空间特征就非常必要。目前,这方面的研究已经受到一些****的关注,如Raymond等利用填图调查和GIS方法分析了澳大利亚Otways地区社区居民对旅游开发的态度,发现支持和反对旅游开发的态度与空间位置和开发类型有关[34]。Brody等针对美国墨西哥湾油气平台建设与旅游休闲、自然保护等价值间的矛盾,采用多指标空间分析方法,识别出潜在冲突程度高的近海区域以及冲突可能性低而适合开发的区域[35]。然而,总体上看,目前关于旅游社区多群体态度和冲突空间特征的研究还相对较少,相关的理论与方法还亟待探索。
中国西部乡村旅游的开发,使得当地社会构成复杂化,社区居民、外来游客、地方政府和旅游企业等不同群体间的矛盾与冲突已成为旅游社区持续发展的制约因素,认识这种多群体态度与冲突的空间特征,可以为社区旅游空间规划和管理决策提供重要帮助。本文基于参与式制图（Participatory Mapping, PM）、冲突倾向指标模型和地理空间分析等方法,探讨旅游社区多利益群体态度差异、冲突倾向的空间格局特征,旨在深入理解社区冲突的表现和产生机制,以期为多群体利益权衡和冲突管控提供支持,促进社区旅游健康发展。
2 研究设计
2.1 研究区域
研究区包括汤峪镇镇区及其周边部分村落（图1）,汤峪镇区地处西安市东南40 km的秦岭北麓,覆盖面积约8.8 km2,其中北部为平原地区,南部为秦岭低山,其中东峰山海拔900 m,西峰山海拔840 m。汤峪镇与西安市长安区相接,因温泉而声名远播。当地大力开发温泉沐浴、水疗、度假房地产等项目,居民则以经营农家乐餐饮住宿、销售泡汤用品、经营垂钓园及蓝田玉商铺等形式参与旅游发展,目前,该镇已成为集温泉洗浴、休闲度假、商务旅游为一体的旅游小镇。
显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT图1调研区域布局
-->Fig. 1The layout of the study area
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镇区塘子村1996年以村民股份合作形式创办汤峪温泉企业,并于2003年成立大兴汤峪温泉开发有限公司。2007年该公司推出汤泉古镇商业街、南山汤院养生公寓、南山汤院滨河住宅、南山汤院杏林酒店等开发项目;2010年10月该公司投资建设的西北最大的露天温泉浴场碧水湾正式开业,成为当地主要的温泉旅游接待场所。2010年,汤峪镇被国家旅游局授予“全国特色景观旅游名镇”称号,2015年大兴汤院遗址公园被授予“AAAA”级旅游景区。塘子村村内共有13家温泉酒店（含两家四星级）,农家乐30多家,100多所农家宾馆和400多个农家店铺。2011年汤峪镇接待游客人数突破300万人次,2012年达400多万人次。目前,每年仅到汤峪来沐浴水疗的人数就突破150万人次,当地汇聚了休闲旅游群体、温泉疗养群体、养老群体等各类群体,全镇接待旅游人数年均超过400万人次,拉动全镇经济收入2亿元（① 研究区域资料来源：http://www.zgtywq.com,http://www.xazz.cn;汤峪镇志;由汤峪温泉旅游度假区制作的世界沐浴文化发祥地宣传光盘。）。
汤峪镇紧邻西安市,其温泉度假旅游发展较为成熟,在旅游开发过程中,当地经历了快速的经济社会和人口变化;而且基于当地温泉旅游的特殊性,其疗养度假地产项目获得青睐,使得当地出现了新群体——为度假疗养而在当地购买住房的业主。综上所述,汤峪镇旅游发展迅速,社区变化日新月异,利益相关群体日益多样,当地旅游开发中土地利用的多元化和不同利益群体博弈过程的复杂化为本文提供了条件。
显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT图2冲突倾向概念模型[
-->Fig. 2The conceptual model of conflict potential[
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2.2 数据获取与处理
2.2.1 数据获取 本文结合参与式制图法（PM）和半结构访谈法收集研究资料与数据。PM方法是参与式地理信息系统（Public Participation Geographic Information System, PPGIS）中数据获取的主要手段[36],运用PM方法获得的填图数据注重社区民众通过制图主动地表述其对社区土地利用、开发规划、景观变化和生态保护等问题的感知,强调自下而上形成对当地知识、社会或文化现象的理解[37]。半结构访谈是典型的质性资料收集方法,它围绕一定的主题展开灵活访谈,为受访者用自己的语言表达其想法留有充分的余地[38],有利于访谈者进一步了解受访者观点,提高所得访谈资料的丰富性。研究数据收集的具体工具包括：调研区域真彩色卫星相片（比例尺为1:4500）、一套经过注记（A-K）的不干胶贴片和包括人口学基本信息的半结构访谈调查表。在调查中采用PM方法获得受访者感知的景观价值和旅游开发态度的空间点数据[37],利用调查表了解受访者人口学基本信息,并结合半结构访谈获得景观价值和态度空间数据的补充信息。具体调查中的表述以表1为依据。
Tab. 1
表1
表1景观价值和旅游开发态度描述
Tab. 1The description of landscape value and tourism development preferences
| 序号 | 价值与态度 | 调查描述 | 原因 |
|---|---|---|---|
| A | 美学(风景)价值 | 调查范围内,风景优美,能为人们提供审美享受的地点 | 为什么? |
| B | 历史文化价值 | 调查范围内,历史悠久,有遗迹和传说故事,能够体现当地传统文化的地点 | 为什么? |
| C | 经济(生计)价值 | 调查范围内,能够为人们提供收入或就业机会的地点 | 为什么? |
| D | 休闲娱乐价值 | 调查范围内,能够使人们放松身体、心情愉悦的地点 | 为什么? |
| E | 生态环境价值 | 调查范围内,动植物种类丰富,生态环境良好的地点 | 为什么? |
| G | 精神价值 | 调查范围内,使人们感到神圣、不可冒犯的地点 | 为什么? |
| H | 疗养/健康价值 | 调查范围内,能够提高人们身体素质,保持身心健康的地点 | 为什么? |
| I | 代表性价值 | 调查范围内,具有象征意义的,能够代表当地特色的地点 | 为什么? |
| J | 您支持进行旅游开发的地点 | 调查范围内,您支持开发旅游业的地点(如支持兴建旅游景点、宾(旅)馆、餐馆、度假住宅、休闲娱乐场所等) | 为什么? |
| K | 您反对进行旅游开发的地点 | 调查范围内,您反对开发旅游业的地点(如反对兴建旅游景点、宾(旅)馆、餐馆、度假住宅、休闲娱乐场所等) | 为什么? |
新窗口打开
为确保调研工具的准确性和有效性,由1位教师、1名博士生和5名硕士生等7人构成的调查组于2013年9月底前往汤峪镇进行了为期3天的预调研,并根据预调研效果及发现的问题对测量工具进行调整和修改。确定调研工具后,由一名教师带领7名硕士生组成的调查组于2013年10月初前往汤峪镇进行了为期10天的正式现场调研和资料收集,7名硕士生组成的调查组又于11月下旬再次到汤峪镇进行了为期7天的正式调研和资料补充收集。在实际调研中,调研人员首先将调研用卫星相片展示给受访者,并向其简单介绍调研目的和情况,随后帮助受访者在相片中确定自己所在位置,帮助其认读卫星影像;接着请受访者根据自身感知用代表不同景观价值和态度的编号贴片（A-K）在相片中标出反映自身景观价值感知和旅游开发态度的地点;最后,调研人员询问并记录原因,为保证受访者表达信息的完整性,对贴图和描述时间不做限制。
Tab. 2
表2
表2样本基本特征
Tab. 2The demographic characteristics of samples
| 特征项目 | 类别 | 社区居民 | 度假购房业主 | 游客 | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 人数(个) | 比例(%) | 人数(个) | 比例(%) | 人数(个) | 比例(%) | ||||
| 性别 | 男 | 50 | 15.87 | 58 | 18.41 | 64 | 20.32 | ||
| 女 | 55 | 17.46 | 46 | 14.60 | 42 | 13.33 | |||
| 年龄 | 18岁以下 | 8 | 2.54 | 0 | 0.00 | 3 | 0.95 | ||
| 18~29岁 | 25 | 7.94 | 6 | 1.90 | 26 | 8.25 | |||
| 30~44岁 | 39 | 12.38 | 15 | 4.76 | 31 | 9.84 | |||
| 45~59岁 | 25 | 7.94 | 30 | 9.52 | 30 | 9.52 | |||
| 60岁以上 | 8 | 2.54 | 53 | 16.83 | 16 | 5.08 | |||
| 文化水平 | 小学以下 | 2 | 0.63 | 1 | 0.32 | 1 | 0.32 | ||
| 小学 | 8 | 2.54 | 2 | 0.63 | 3 | 0.95 | |||
| 初中 | 58 | 18.41 | 14 | 4.44 | 15 | 4.76 | |||
| 中专或高中 | 24 | 7.62 | 16 | 5.08 | 24 | 7.62 | |||
| 大专 | 8 | 2.54 | 20 | 6.35 | 24 | 7.62 | |||
| 本科及以上 | 5 | 1.59 | 51 | 16.19 | 39 | 12.38 | |||
| 合计 | 105 | 33.33 | 104 | 33.02 | 106 | 33.65 | |||
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调研采取分层抽样方法采集样本,即力求社区（塘子村）居民、度假购房业主和游客3类受访群体人数相当,且人口学特征分布比例相对均衡;同时调研地点相对均匀地分布于研究区,以确保填图结果的代表性。此外,由于贴图需要受访者对当地情况有一定的了解,因此,大多数受访游客曾到访汤峪镇两次及以上。
此次调研共获得调查表、填图320套,其中315套有效,有效率98.44%。受访者的贴图数据最终以点数据形式录入ArcGIS软件,共计获得景观价值和旅游开发态度点数据5518个（表3）,平均每个受访对象贴出16~18个数据点。
Tab. 3
表3
表3景观价值和旅游开发态度的空间数据
Tab. 3The spatial data of landscape value and tourism development preferences
| 代码 | 专题价值 | 各类群体表述的空间信息点(个) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 社区居民 | 度假购房业主 | 游客 | 合计 | ||
| A | 美学(风景)价值 | 306 | 262 | 276 | 844 |
| B | 历史文化价值 | 225 | 126 | 144 | 495 |
| C | 经济(生计)价值 | 256 | 197 | 217 | 670 |
| D | 休闲娱乐价值 | 270 | 278 | 263 | 811 |
| E | 生态环境价值 | 179 | 165 | 151 | 495 |
| G | 精神价值 | 122 | 69 | 100 | 291 |
| H | 疗养/健康价值 | 188 | 157 | 176 | 521 |
| I | 代表性价值 | 204 | 193 | 204 | 601 |
| J | 您支持进行旅游开发的地方 | 148 | 125 | 161 | 434 |
| K | 您不支持进行旅游开发的地方 | 90 | 151 | 115 | 356 |
| 合计 | 1988 | 1723 | 1807 | 5518 | |
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显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT图3汤峪镇旅游开发态度密度
-->Fig. 3The density of tourism development preferences in Tangyu
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2.2.2 数据处理 本文主要采用ArcGIS中的密度分析和基于态度差异与景观价值感知构建的旅游开发冲突倾向指标模型进行数据处理与分析。
（1）密度制图分析
密度制图分析可以将测量所得的空间点数据生成连续表面,从而识别空间点的集中范围与程度。采用ArcGIS软件中的点密度估计工具（Point density）将不同群体的景观价值和旅游开发态度的空间数据生成点密度图,所生成的密度图层数据用于冲突倾向分析。在选取栅格大小和搜索半径时,参考相关研究结果[37, 39],并考虑研究区规模,将输出栅格大小设置为50 m,搜索半径为150 m。
（2）旅游开发冲突倾向指数
Brown等[39]利用不同态度在特定空间位置的重叠状况指示冲突现象,提出了包括态度差异性和地点重要性在内的二维冲突倾向概念模型（图2）,用于识别不同利益群体态度中指示的潜在冲突空间位置、特性和强度等。
依据冲突倾向概念模型判断,态度差异越大和重要性越高的地点,其旅游开发冲突倾向越大,反之则越小。旅游开发冲突倾向最大的地点特征为：旅游开发态度差异最大（支持和反对态度势均力敌）,地点重要性最高（被多群体重视,赋予多种景观价值）;旅游开发冲突倾向最低的地点特征为：旅游开发态度差异最小,地点重要性最低。
本文基于Brown提出的加权态度差异指数[39]定义了总体态度差异指数OPD（Overall Preference Difference）,结合景观价值密度Vc,修订形成旅游开发冲突倾向指数CPS（Conflict Potential Score）。
式中：OPD是总体态度差异指数;CPS是冲突倾向指数;Ps是某栅格中“支持旅游开发”的密度值;Po是某栅格中“反对旅游开发”的密度值;Vc为某栅格中所有景观价值的密度值。
分析中的运算基于密度估计产生的栅格数据进行。OPD反映总体态度差异,由态度的差异和强度两部分组成,其中态度差异部分利用重叠在单一栅格内的支持（Ps）和反对（Po）两种旅游开发态度的比值来体现（运算时先将两种态度密度都为0的栅格去掉,两者中的小值比两者中的大值,最终取值在0~1之间）,两种相反态度的密度值越接近,则该地点态度的差异越大;而态度强度由两种态度之和来反映,和值越大,表明该地点的态度集中程度越高。地点重要性（即受关注程度）由栅格中全部景观价值的密度值（Vc）表示,价值越集中的栅格代表该地点受关注度越高,重要性亦高。CPS指数以空间地点为对象,集合了多群体对于该地点的总体态度差异及其景观价值的评价,综合反映态度差异性和地点重要性,从而识别潜在的冲突区域。
3 结果分析
3.1 旅游开发态度与景观价值的空间分布
在进行多群体态度差异和冲突倾向分析之前,首先选取所有群体样本中“支持进行旅游开发的地点”和“反对进行旅游开发的地点”的点进行点密度制图（图3）,以了解受访者旅游开发态度的总体分布状况。其中,某地点的态度密度值越高表明其承载的旅游开发态度越集中。从图3可以看出,旅游开发态度较为集中的地点包括：汤峪镇政府周围（含镇政府、南山汤院小区和娱乐城等）、御宾苑小区、温泉水镇小区、塘子村主街道及其两侧、碧水湾阳光浴场周围、天潭温泉酒店、观音堂周围（包括观音堂、九财台和大兴汤院遗址公园等在内的旅游景点）、西峰山、东峰山、汤峪湖森林公园和汤峪水库等多个地点。总体上,态度集中地点的类型较多,包括政府部门、商业街区、住宅小区、酒店设施、旅游景点、山地、林地、河流和水库水面等。就旅游开发态度的空间分布而言,南部山区多以反对态度为主,态度点相对分散;而在北部山前的汤峪镇区中两种态度表现明显,态度点集中程度高,出现了多个片状的态度密集区域。景观价值密度（Vc）反映的是多群体对不同地点景观价值的感知强度,不同群体对于同一地点赋予的价值愈加集中和多样,代表其地点重要性越高（图4）。从地点类型来看,温泉设施和旅游景点的景观价值密度偏高,如碧水湾阳光浴场、观音堂周围、东峰山和汤峪水库;其次是一些接待设施,包括沿主街分布的接待设施（塘子村主街）和天潭温泉酒店。商业小区的景观价值不高,如御宾苑小区、温泉水镇等。空间分布上,景观价值密度高值地点呈南北带状分布,横贯山区和山前地带,具体而言,又可分为3部分：主街沿线（镇政府—省康复中心）,汤峪河沿线（碧水湾浴场—观音堂—东峰山—汤峪水库）和天潭温泉酒店。总体上,景观价值密度高值地点的地点类型和空间分布的集中特征明显。
显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT图4汤峪镇景观价值密度
-->Fig. 4The density of landscape value in Tangyu
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3.2 旅游开发总体态度差异
OPD指数反映的是对同一地点旅游开发态度的总体差异性,其值越高表明该地点的总体态度差异越大,即针对该地点的支持和反对旅游开发态度集中,因而其承载的态度对立性明显。由图5可见,总体态度差异高值包括：旅游接待设施地点,包括塘子村主街道及其两侧、天潭温泉酒店、陕西省康复中心等;温泉设施和旅游景点,包括碧水湾阳光浴场、观音堂周围（含观音堂、九财台和大兴汤院遗址公园等）、汤峪水库、西峰山;商业住宅小区,主要有御宾苑小区、大唐风情园和温泉水镇。总体来说,北部山前汤峪镇区态度对立明显,涉及地点和类型较多,而南部山区态度总体差异与对立不明显。
显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT图5汤峪镇旅游开发总体态度差异(OPD)
-->Fig. 5The overall preference difference towards tourism development (OPD) in Tangyu
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由于OPD中两种对立态度的比值（小值/大值）在0~1之间取值,因此,对比图3、图5各地点取值可知,总体态度差异高值地点可分以下类型：态度集中（密度值高）,而态度差异中等,如碧水湾阳光浴场;态度密度中等,而态度差异大,如塘子村主街,御宾苑小区,观音堂一带,汤峪水库局部地区以及西峰山;态度密度和差别都属于中等水平,主要有天潭温泉酒店,御宾苑小区。南山汤院,东峰山,汤峪湖森林公园虽然态度密度中等,但由于态度差别小,即以两种态度的一种为主,因此,没有成为总体态度对立明显的区域。
3.3 潜在的旅游开发冲突地点
CPS指数反映不同地点的冲突倾向,其值越高的地点冲突倾向越大,反之则越小,冲突倾向大的地点可定义为潜在的旅游开发冲突地点。汤峪镇（图幅范围内）旅游开发潜在的冲突地点包括：碧水湾阳光浴场、观音堂（包括观音堂、九财台和大兴汤院遗址公园等在内的旅游景点、塘子村主街道及其两侧、天潭温泉酒店和汤峪水库（图6）。这5个地点可分为3类：旅游接待设施,包括天潭温泉酒店和碧水湾阳光浴场;商业街区,即塘子村主街道及其两侧;旅游景点,即观音堂区域和汤峪水库。
显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT图6汤峪镇旅游开发冲突倾向(CPS)
-->Fig. 6The conflict potential score of tourism development (CPS) in Tangyu
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（1）碧水湾阳光浴场地点重要性最高,总体态度差异较大,使得其冲突倾向值最高。其中3类群体对碧水湾阳光浴场的旅游开发总体上表示支持,但也存在一定程度的反对态度,其中社区居民的反对态度较为突出（图7）。碧水湾阳光浴场是由社区主导的大兴汤峪温泉开发有限公司主持开发,与社区居民的利益息息相关,同时作为当地开发最成功的浴场,碧水湾成为多数游客和度假购房业主的主要泡汤场所,社区居民、度假购房业主和游客普遍对其开发持支持态度。然而,社区居民由于耕地被占用,以旅游经营为主要收入来源,部分村民认为碧水湾在就业与分红中存在不公平现象,因而导致他们持反对态度。此外,部分游客由于浴场过度人工化开发,污染水体,而采取了反对态度。这类地点由于重要性高,众多群体关注,虽然态度差异并不突出,但小的差异会引起广泛的关注,因而成为潜在冲突易发地点。
显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT图7汤峪镇潜在冲突地点的多群体态度注：图中数值为利用ArcGIS矢量多边形提取的地点内相应栅格态度的密度平均值。
-->Fig. 7Multi-groups' preferences of places with significant conflict potential in Tangyu
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（2）观音堂（包括观音堂、九财台和大兴汤院遗址公园等在内的旅游景点）的总体态度差异大,地方重要性较高,导致该地点的冲突倾向较高。针对该地点的旅游开发,社区居民以支持态度为主,而度假购房业主以反对态度为主,游客内部存在明显态度分化（图7）。社区居民认为观音堂及其附近景点是当地主要的特色景点,吸引了众多游客,有利于社区旅游发展,因而持支持态度;而度假购房业主则认为观音堂等旅游景点属于现代人造景观,开发层次较低,文化内涵有限,更破坏了原有自然环境,且带来较多游客到访,使得社区十分拥挤,影响其疗养环境,所以更多持反对态度;游客内部对该地点的开发态度出现分歧,部分游客认为该景点具有创意,值得一看,但游客欣赏水平存在差异,因而另外一部分游客则与度假购房业主持一致态度。
（3）塘子村主街道及其两侧的总体态度差异显著,地方重要性较高,所以其冲突倾向也较高。游客与社区居民对塘子村主街道持支持态度,而多数度假购房业主则持反对态度（图7）;塘子村主街道是当地居民长期生活和开展小规模自主经营活动的空间,是他们的生计与依恋所在;同时相较于高档酒店,该地点为多数游客提供了价位较为合适的食宿和购物等服务,而汤峪的多数普通游客消费水平有限,因此社区居民和游客支持该地点进行旅游开发。多数度假购房业主认为,虽然塘子村主街道及其两侧为居民带来可观收入,但日益商业化和激烈的市场竞争带来的不规范经营现象,加之众多游客导致了拥挤和混乱,使得当地失去了原本的乡村面貌,不利于疗养度假,因而持反对态度。
（4）天潭温泉酒店的总体态度差异性较大,地点重要性较高,其冲突倾向也较大。总体上,3类群体支持天潭温泉酒店的开发,但部分社区居民和业主也表述了较多的反对态度（图7）。该地由外来企业绿洲集团投资兴建,档次较高,服务规范,成为当地仅次于碧水湾阳光浴场的泡汤场所,获得了3类群体中多数人的认可。但部分社区居民认为其在疗养/健康价值上不及碧水湾,且其开发会影响碧水湾浴场的发展,进而损害居民既得利益,加之其内部员工多来自当地社区居民以外的村民,因而持反对态度;部分业主认为其开发以削平山坡和树林为代价,破坏了当地的风景与生态环境,因而持一定反对态度。
（5）汤峪水库的总体态度差异明显,且被3类受访者赋予多种景观价值,因而冲突倾向较高。多数度假购房业主和游客反对汤峪水库的开发,而居民则表现出了明显的支持态度（图7）。游客认为汤峪水库自然环境优美,开发会破坏其生态环境,汤峪水库也是度假购房业主进行锻炼和散心的主要空间,也是镇子的水源,开发难免产生污染,二者主要持反对态度。同时,汤峪水库是当地最大的水域,也是当地主要的水面景点,内部建设有部分服务场所,为社区居民带来可观收益,因此社区居民中支持旅游开发态度比例高。但值得注意的是,虽然较多居民出于经济利益考虑支持汤峪水库的进一步开发,但仍有部分居民以生态环境和水资源保护为出发点持反对态度。
总体来说,针对大型旅游接待设施项目地,3类群体总体上持支持态度,反对态度中以社区居民为主,如碧水湾阳光浴场和天潭温泉酒店;针对商业街区,游客和社区居民持支持态度,而度假购房业主则以反对态度为主,如塘子村主街道及其两侧;旅游景点中的人文景点,社区居民普遍持支持态度,而度假购房业主则多持反对态度,而游客内部则出现分化,如观音堂（包括观音堂、九财台和大兴汤院遗址公园等在内的旅游景点）;就自然旅游景点而言,游客和购房业主都持反对开发态度,而社区居民内部则存在一定程度的态度矛盾,如汤峪水库。
4 讨论
乡村社区持续的人口构成和社会经济变化,使得社区发展中的矛盾突出并日益复杂化。科学知识,理性描述往往无法排除社区不同群体关于开发合理性的质疑,相关群体基于自身价值观、地方感知和利益诉求对现象进行判断并开展行动,使得社区发展决策经常具有争议性,并引起冲突。虽然在社区决策过程中,建立多群体共同立场（common ground）的重要性已受到广泛重视,但实际上,了解差异和冲突更加能够帮助理解社区,从而达成管理决策意见的一致。近年来,许多****从不同角度关注到了差异和冲突研究的重要性,为社区开发与治理提供了新的视角。Yung等[9]利用地方政治理论（politics of place）分析了森林管理中不同群体的作用,并将地方政治定义为是在乡村政治中某地域被多群体差异化表征和竞争性构建的过程。Buizer等[40]提出了次政治（sub-politics）的概念,认为次政治源于政治体制外部的人群态度、观念的差异,可以自下而上地争取和表述权力关系并塑造社会。由此可见,关于社区态度差异和冲突的研究,能够帮助解释当下社区内部复杂的社会现象。针对目前研究的不足,本文利用参与式制图法获得主观数据,结合GIS进行空间可视化和建模分析,在展示多群体旅游开发态度差异的基础上,揭示出了研究区域冲突倾向的空间特征。从研究结果看,5个潜在冲突地点被辨认出来,这些地点都存在多人群间的资源竞争（如温泉资源、疗养场所）或价值差异（如汤峪湖和观音堂）,虽然目前开发活动并没有导致相关人群的对立和对抗,但显然已经引起一个或多个人群的负面体验（不满意）[5],并影响到了不同人群的态度表达,成为未来社区冲突管理的重点区域。
研究区旅游开发冲突倾向并非均匀分布,高值区主要集中在当地的核心发展区域汤峪河两岸、主街两侧和重点开发项目地点,呈斑状格局,且强度由北部镇区向南部山区,由核心区向外围区域减弱。从数据层面分析,这种空间特征受到3个人群态度表达和价值感知空间特征的影响。旅游开发态度空间组合是影响冲突倾向空间分布的基本因素,这种空间组合受到两个方面的影响,一是态度的性质（支持/反对）;二是两种态度的空间分布状况。对于本文来说,山区植被茂密,以反对开发的态度为主,且分布分散,支持开发的态度相对集中,但密度较小,这使得南部山区冲突倾向不高。研究区北部山前地带是汤峪镇区,也是汤峪旅游活动的集散地和休闲疗养接待地,还是旅游地产开发的主要区域。该区域分布着密度值较高的两种相反开发态度,且都以集聚分布为主,空间上相互重合,形成了该区域冲突倾向明显的基础。景观价值感知反映地点重要性,从本文来看,研究区景观价值分布呈现出显著的集中特点,且景观价值的高值地点与态度及其总体差异的高值点存在较多重合（图3、图4、图5）,这种重合使得一些区域成为潜在冲突区域。态度与重要性的重合说明二者存在内在联系,这符合已有研究的结论,即多人群共同关注的地点,也是多种价值和利用预期汇聚的地点,容易产生态度集聚、差异和冲突[41-42]。
潜在旅游开发冲突地点的形成既有传统冲突因素的影响,又有特殊空间因素的作用。从本案例来看,可以梳理出以下方面：① 旅游开发要素的空间结构。旅游开发的空间组织影响冲突倾向的分布,研究区的敏感景观地带（汤峪河沿岸）、特色资源分布区（汤峪水库）、密集开发区域（塘子村主街）和大型开发项目（天潭温泉酒店）既是当地的旅游开发主要空间要素,又成为冲突的潜在区域;② 多人群景观价值的空间感知。从景观价值来看,南部山区主要分布有生态环境价值和风景（美学）价值,这种价值类型结构指示着不同人群在南部山区具有主导性的土地利用预期,即限制开发,加强保护。这决定了该区域以广泛分布的反对旅游开发态度为主,这是其冲突倾向强度不高的主要因素。北部汤峪镇区主要分布着经济（生计）价值、休闲娱乐价值、代表性价值、风景（美学）价值和历史文化价值,这些价值类型结构指示不同人群对该区域的理解和利用预期存在相互竞争,形成冲突倾向的高值区;③ 社区旅游发展阶段。社区居民对旅游开发的态度与当地所处的发展阶段及自身的旅游获益感知存在关系[43]。汤峪镇旅游目前处于快速发展阶段,社区居民通过参与旅游经济收益明显,居民以经济利益为出发点,表现出明显的支持态度,这使得他们在汤峪水库、观音堂周围等区域与其他人群态度出现冲突;④ 相关人群的涉入程度。已有研究显示涉入程度会影响人群的态度[19],涉入程度深的专项旅游者往往能够感知更多的负面影响而表现出反对态度。虽然汤峪镇的购房业主不是严格意义上的游客,但与汤峪镇旅游者比较,他们属于涉入更深的人群。在本文中,购房业主更加敏感,表现出了显著的反对态度（图7）,在观音堂、塘子村和汤峪水库成为反对开发的主导人群。而游客态度则具有更多的变化性。
GIS空间分析由于难以处理主观数据而受到批评[44]。一些****将其原因归纳为两点：一是缺乏获得空间信息准确的主观数据的方法;二是主观数据的空间变化性使其难以与传统的客观数据整合分析[37]。参与式制图技术,通过点数据和制图的方法收集结构化的态度和价值类型的空间信息,较好地解决了主观数据的获取问题。但从汤峪镇的案例来看,由于公众参与到制图工作当中,数据精度的控制成为工作的关键。本文中发现一些环节可能影响数据精度：一是参与者的读图能力参差不齐,可能产生误差;二是研究区城镇部分地标众多,点状地物明显且易于辨认,填图的精度高,而南部的山区地标少,属于面状工作区域,访谈对象填图位置的变化性较大,这可能低估了态度和价值集中程度。这两个问题的解决都需要更为细致的读图引导工作和地图准备工作,深度访谈式的调查过程,注记丰富且形象化的地图或影像,且其他的辅助图像或文字信息的采用会有助于改善这种状况。就本文来说,由于3类人群在南部山区主要赋予了反对旅游开发的单一态度,因此,南部山区的填图精度降低对冲突倾向评价的影响不大。
5 结论
（1）旅游开发态度及其差异具有明显的地点指向性,并与景观价值的空间感知相关联。旅游开发冲突倾向在空间上并非均匀分布,而是呈斑状格局,高值集中于社区旅游开发核心区域,且强度由开发核心区域向外围区域减弱。（2）潜在冲突地点的形成既有传统冲突因素的影响,又有特殊空间因素的作用,旅游开发要素的空间结构、多人群景观价值的空间感知、社区旅游发展阶段和相关人群的涉入程度均会影响冲突空间的形成。
（3）参与式制图与深度访谈结合的方法有助于获得多人群的主观数据,为认识态度和旅游开发冲突的空间特征提供新的技术支撑。
The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
参考文献 原文顺序
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被引期刊影响因子
| [1] | . <p>基于“地方感”、“期望理论”两个基本理论，从旅游核心社区居民地方感、旅游发展期望、旅游发展获益感知、旅游发展成本感知以及旅游发展支持度五个结构变量出发，通过引入旅游发展期望值作为中介变量，构建居民地方感对旅游发展支持度内部影响机制的理论模型。以世界遗产地九寨沟为实证研究对象，通过验证性因子分析和三阶段结构方程模型的定量分析，校验理论模型中各结构因子、结构因子与其所含维度之间影响路径及其系数，定量测度了居民的旅游发展期望在居民地方感与旅游发展正反影响感知关联中的中介效用和影响机制，及对旅游发展支持度的潜在影响模式。研究结果表明：① 居民地方感对居民旅游发展正反影响感知的作用存在差异，地方感对获益感知的作用远大于成本感知。② 居民从旅游发展中感知获益有助于他们对当地旅游发展持更积极态度，而成本感知则会产生消极影响。③ 居民旅游发展期望中介效用的存在性和有效性，居民地方感通过发展期望，强化了对旅游发展影响感知及旅游支持度作用。④ 发展期望在居民旅游发展正反影响感知两结构模型中的中介效用存在强弱，在感知获益子结构模型的中介作用强于感知成本子模型。</p> . <p>基于“地方感”、“期望理论”两个基本理论，从旅游核心社区居民地方感、旅游发展期望、旅游发展获益感知、旅游发展成本感知以及旅游发展支持度五个结构变量出发，通过引入旅游发展期望值作为中介变量，构建居民地方感对旅游发展支持度内部影响机制的理论模型。以世界遗产地九寨沟为实证研究对象，通过验证性因子分析和三阶段结构方程模型的定量分析，校验理论模型中各结构因子、结构因子与其所含维度之间影响路径及其系数，定量测度了居民的旅游发展期望在居民地方感与旅游发展正反影响感知关联中的中介效用和影响机制，及对旅游发展支持度的潜在影响模式。研究结果表明：① 居民地方感对居民旅游发展正反影响感知的作用存在差异，地方感对获益感知的作用远大于成本感知。② 居民从旅游发展中感知获益有助于他们对当地旅游发展持更积极态度，而成本感知则会产生消极影响。③ 居民旅游发展期望中介效用的存在性和有效性，居民地方感通过发展期望，强化了对旅游发展影响感知及旅游支持度作用。④ 发展期望在居民旅游发展正反影响感知两结构模型中的中介效用存在强弱，在感知获益子结构模型的中介作用强于感知成本子模型。</p> |
| [2] | . 我国西部少数民族经济欠发达地 区,依托于少数民族文化资源和自然景观资源发展旅游业被认为是促进地方经济发展、社区脱贫和资源保护的有效手段。然而,在旅游开发的光环下,旅游开发引发 的,较为普遍的社会冲突却并未引起各界足够重视。本文尝试性地以旅游社会学研究方法和原理,在正确认识旅游开发引起社会冲突的基础上,探索民族地区旅游社 会冲突的协调对策,以期维护与推动我国民族地区的社会和谐与稳定发展。 . 我国西部少数民族经济欠发达地 区,依托于少数民族文化资源和自然景观资源发展旅游业被认为是促进地方经济发展、社区脱贫和资源保护的有效手段。然而,在旅游开发的光环下,旅游开发引发 的,较为普遍的社会冲突却并未引起各界足够重视。本文尝试性地以旅游社会学研究方法和原理,在正确认识旅游开发引起社会冲突的基础上,探索民族地区旅游社 会冲突的协调对策,以期维护与推动我国民族地区的社会和谐与稳定发展。 |
| [3] | . 利益关系问题对于少数民族社区旅游可持续发展意义重大。以龙脊梯 田景区作为案例地，运用深度访谈、参与式观察与非参与式观察及文献等研究方法，深入探讨了政府、旅游公司、外来投资商、社区和普通村民等各利益主体之间的 利益关系。研究发现：各利益主体参与旅游方式不同，其利益关注点差异较大，导致了他们之间的多重利益矛盾和冲突；尽管旅游公司、政府和外来投资商处于“强 势”地位，但作为“弱者”的村民为了争取自己的权益一旦拿起“武器”，以“强者”的姿态进行斗争乃至对抗，必将造成恶劣影响和不良后果，最终不利于旅游的 可持续发展。 . 利益关系问题对于少数民族社区旅游可持续发展意义重大。以龙脊梯 田景区作为案例地，运用深度访谈、参与式观察与非参与式观察及文献等研究方法，深入探讨了政府、旅游公司、外来投资商、社区和普通村民等各利益主体之间的 利益关系。研究发现：各利益主体参与旅游方式不同，其利益关注点差异较大，导致了他们之间的多重利益矛盾和冲突；尽管旅游公司、政府和外来投资商处于“强 势”地位，但作为“弱者”的村民为了争取自己的权益一旦拿起“武器”，以“强者”的姿态进行斗争乃至对抗，必将造成恶劣影响和不良后果，最终不利于旅游的 可持续发展。 |
| [4] | . This article analyzes a conflict stemming from the construction of a religious-tourism site - The Baha'i World Center, in Haifa, Israel and contributes to the literature on the relationship between religion, tourism, and conflict. We first propose a framing typology based on literature of conflicts, as well as analysis of empirical data, using Grounded Theory. We then apply the typology on the ... |
| [5] | . Social and psychological conflict is defined within the framework of the environment and behaviour perspective and distinguished from a related concept, crowding. Examples from leisure and recreation research, where ‘conflict’ is commonly recognized, are used to introduce the theoretical argument. Previous work in this area, intended to serve applied aims, has been too descriptive and this emphasises the value of a more fundamental approach. This is clear from the practical implications of the argument and it is suggested that for resource managers to be effective they must be able to understand and anticipate conflict rather than simply react to established conflicts which may not be easy to eliminate. Two theoretical propositions are put forward to develop an earlier definition of conflict. |
| [6] | . Basic scaling and attitude measurement techniques and their potential in tourism and travel research are reviewed. First, attitudes, their components, and their characteristics are discussed. Next, the main scaling/attitude measurement techniques are outlined and the advantages and disadvantages of each technique are considered. Subsequently, some of the unique aspects of measuring attitudes in... |
| [7] | |
| [8] | |
| [9] | . A major challenge of forest policy and management is effectively understanding different people's viewpoints on natural resource use and conservation, and how those viewpoints contribute to conflict and conflict resolution. In response to this challenge, the concept of place is gaining currency in natural resource research. The study of place promises an integrative approach to understanding people's relationships with particular areas. Realizing the potential of place research to inform forest policy and management means conceptualizing place as an of shared and contested meanings. A politics of place is attentive to different and potentially conflicting meanings, and how senses of place may be connected to larger political struggles. This study examines people's images, values, and interests with respect to the Rocky Mountain Front in . In this case study, discourse about placenames provided a window into the politics of place. Results illustrate the ways in which place meanings are connected to people's ideas about property, conservation, and governance. Knowledge of the politics of place can inform forest policy and management and contribute to a more sophisticated understanding of natural resource conflict and the potential effectiveness of decision-making processes. |
| [10] | . This paper is based upon 12 months of ethnographic study while living among the Tuva and Kazakh people in Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, China. Based on observation, interviews, participation and secondary documents the paper uses Coser's theory of Social Conflict to suggest a four part model of how tourism engenders different forms of social conflict and fluctuating alliances between stakeholders in an environment where tourism has been introduced by agents external to the indigenous community. The actors are ethnic groupings and members of those groups, governmental officials at local, regional and national level, intermediaries of the tourism industry and private sector entrepreneurs drawn from the majority and minority ethnic groups. Tensions are identified as being based on beliefs, resources and power, and a sequential pattern of primacy is identified consistent with stages of the tourist area life cycle. |
| [11] | |
| [12] | . |
| [13] | . This research focuses on residents' perceptions of personal benefits from tourism, identifying not only the relationships between personal benefits from tourism and residents' attitudes toward tourism but also the nature of benefits associated with tourism. The study was conducted in a small rural community where tourism is still at its emerging stage. It was found that residents' perceptions o... |
| [14] | . In the last 30 years, community perceptions of negative impacts from tourism have encouraged research from several different fields into community attitudes, with the goal of overcoming opposition to tourism development. Drawing on a study of Charleston, SC, this article explores the relationships between community attachment, existing through such bonds as friendship and kinship, and resident attitudes toward tourism development. We studied Charleston to understand the differences in attitude toward tourism development among its neighborhoods, based on community attachment variables, and to explore the role of community attachment in predicting these attitudes, especially regarding residents of historic residential districts. This research has implications for tourism planning in Charleston and other tourism cities with historic residential districts. |
| [15] | . |
| [16] | . <h2 class="secHeading" id="section_abstract">Abstract</h2><p id="">A theoretical model of resident support for tourism that is based on the social exchange theory was shown to be valid regardless of the distance between residents’ homes and tourism attractions. However, distance had a significant effect on how the costs and benefits were evaluated. Recreation resource users living closest to the attraction who used it heavily felt more negatively about tourism than did those users living further away. Environmentally sensitive residents who lived closest to the site were more supportive of tourism than more distant residents.</p><h2 class="secHeading" id="section_abstract">Résumé</h2><p id="">Les effets de la distance sur les attitudes des habitants envers le tourisme. On a montré qu’un modèle théorique, basé sur la théorie de l’échange social et appliqué au soutien du tourisme par les habitants, était valable sans distinction de la distance entre le domicile des habitants et les attractions touristiques. Pourtant, la distance avait un effet significatif sur l’évaluation des coûts et des bénéfices. Les utilisateurs des ressources de récréation qui habitaient le plus près de l’attraction et qui l’utilisaient fréquemment avaient des attitudes plus négatives que les utilisateurs qui habitaient à une plus grande distance. Parmi les habitants qui étaient plus conscients de l’environnement, ceux qui vivaient plus près de l’endroit en question étaient plus favorables au tourisme que ceux qui habitaient plus loin.</p> |
| [17] | . . Her research focuses on collective action for conservation and on how parks, wilderness areas and tourism destinations provide incentives and sources of inspiration for community conservation. |
| [18] | . <h2 class="secHeading" id="section_abstract">Abstract</h2><p id="">As a set of economic activities, tourism trades on the character of special places. Conflict can emerge where local residents perceive that tourism development proposals challenge the special qualities of place, and where place meaning and attachments are compromised. A key function of government in mediating conflict is to protect public interests, yet explicit consideration of public interest in tourism development conflict is unusual. This paper argues for a reinvigoration of public interest in the mediation of tourism development conflicts. It explores the concept of public interest and how governments interpret and give meaning to it in development debates. In a case study of a cruise ship terminal proposal on the Gold Coast, Australia, the state adopted a neoliberal interpretation of public interest wherein increased global competitiveness of the destination was the overriding common good pursued. Local and diverse interests were marginalised in the debate. The paper concludes that in order to reinvigorate public interest, a public interest evaluation framework for tourism development is needed.</p> |
| [19] | . ABSTRACT This study empirically examines the theoretical distinction between interpersonal conflict and conflict in social values. Data for this investigation were obtained from surveys of visitors to Mt. Evans, Colorado. Interpersonal conflicts between hunters and nonhunters on Mt. Evans appear to have been minimized due to the mountain's natural visual barriers and the managing agency's regulations that prohibit hunting near the road where most nonhunters are found. To the extent that conflict exists with hunting associated events on Mt. Evans, much of the problem stems from differences in social values held by the hunting and nonhunting publics. Hunters and more frequent visitors experienced more interpersonal conflicts than nonhunters and less frequent visitors for nonhunting human鈥恮ildlife interaction events. Analyses examining the interaction between type of visitor (hunters versus nonhunters) and number of prior visits (first visit, two to four visits, and five or more visits) suggested that conflicts in social values remained constant across frequency of visitation, but varied between visitor type. The implications for further empirical work and the practical management of conflict are discussed. |
| [20] | . Recreation conflict has been examined relative to interpersonal (i.e., goal interference) conflict and differences in social values. Although this distinction is useful, prior methodologies for operationalizing the two concepts can result in a confound where individuals in the interpersonal conflict category could be expressing goal interference, social values, or both types of conflict. This research note: (a) clarifies the conceptual distinction by incorporating an additional variable that sorts respondents into the most appropriate conflict categories, and (b) uses a multivariate approach to provide an overall evaluation of the magnitude of each type of conflict. Data were obtained from on-site surveys of cross-country skiers (n = 264) and snowmobilers (n = 203) at two Colorado locations. Consistent with previous research, an asymmetrical relationship was found between skiers and snowmobilers, with skiers experiencing more conflict. Cluster analyses of six conflict items indicated that 36% of skiers reported no conflict, 30% noted a conflict in social values, and 34% experienced interpersonal conflict. By comparison, 81% of snowmobilers indicated no conflict, 0% social values conflict, and 19% interpersonal conflict. Few respondents expressed both interpersonal and social values conflict. Whether these levels of conflict are acceptable or unacceptable depends on management objectives and desired outcomes. |
| [21] | . In the present study, different forest user groups were identified and categorised according to their pursued activities, and for each group, causes of conflict were identified. Furthermore, a choice experiment was constructed to estimate the distance visitors are willing to travel to encounter few visitors as opposed to many visitors, and thereby potentially experience fewer conflicts. Comparing the marginal willingness to travel (WTT) of different user groups suggests that some groups have a WTT further than the average to reach a forest with ‘Few’ visitors. The average WTT to reach a forest area with ‘Few’ visitors. ‘Mountain bikers,’ ‘Peace and nature lovers’ and ‘Horse riders’ are willing to travel 402km more than the average per visit to reach a less crowded forest. At the other end of the scale, we find that people who are doing physical exercise are willing to travel 202km less than the average to reach a less crowded forest. |
| [22] | . <h2 class="secHeading" id="section_abstract">Abstract</h2><p id="">The Chilkoot Trail National Historic Site, BC, Canada, well-known for its summer historic gold rush hiking route, is popular in the winter with local residents for skiing, snowmobiling and other winter sports. Park managers implemented a strategy of temporal segregation to mitigate known conflicts between motorised and non-motorised winter users. This study evaluated the effectiveness of separating users, by monitoring visitor satisfaction and support for the management strategy, and assessing the key differences between user groups within the theory of asymmetrical conflict. The results show that separating users increases satisfaction for non-motorised users; however, support for controlled access is moderate to low among all users. This study alerts park managers using direct tools such as controlled access to the possibility that dissatisfaction may shift from those who were most affected by the inter-group conflict (non-motorised users) to the motorised group, who are dissatisfied with increased access limitations and loss of freedom.</p> |
| [23] | . Les perceptions des habitants vis-á-vis des impacts d04s au tourisme. Peu de recherches explicatives ont été faites sur les perceptions des habitants vis-á-vis des impacts du tourisme, et cela a abouti au sousdéveloppement de la base théorique de la recherche sur ce sujet. Cet article propose un modéle de processus d'échange social pour permettre de comprendre pourquio les habitants d'un site touristique percoivent les impacts du tourisme de fa04on négative ou positive. Le modéle s'appuie sur le concept de la relation d'échange. Des propositions sont formulées pour tester les relations entre les composants du modéle. Ces propositions ont été fondées sur la littérature des échanges sociaux. |
| [24] | . |
| [25] | . |
| [26] | . |
| [27] | . The designation of the concept of cultural landscape to a particular region is often taken in isolation of those who live and work there. Yet, at the same time, this designation has profound influences upon where they can live and the availability of suitable employment, whilst attracting into the area many who desire to 'buy into' that landscape. There is often an extreme contrast between housing that is affordable to the local community and housing that can be purchased by those who have access to the higher levels of finance. This frequently generates conflict between those who have historically lived in the area and those who have recently moved into the area attracted by the cultural landscape.<br/>This paper examines the contrasting situations, rules and regulations that exist in Poland and England, by taking as examples the designated cultural landscape of Wisniowa together with the pen-urban landscape of Michalowice, both in Southern Poland, and the Lake District National Park of England. In so doing, it will compare and contrast the pragmatic, locally orientated spatial planning policies of Poland, with those of the regulated (although discretionary), top-down, planning policies of England and their implications upon the concept of spatial landscape management through land use controls.<br/>Finally, consequences of these two different approaches will be evaluated in terms of the social and economic development of the respective regions with particular emphasis placed upon provision, or lack of, policies leading to a reduction in conflict. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. |
| [28] | . |
| [29] | . |
| [30] | <h2 class="secHeading" id="section_abstract">Abstract</h2><p id="">The fields of Environmental Conflict Management (ECM), Environmental Conflict Resolution (ECR), and Peace and Conflict Impact Assessment (PCIA) have become well established; however, as yet there has not been much use of Social Impact Assessment (SIA) to manage environmental conflicts. ECM, ECR and PCIA are mainly undertaken when problems are advanced or, more likely, have run their course (post-conflict). This paper examines how conflict is addressed by SIA and whether there is potential to develop it for more proactive assessment of conflicts (pre-conflict or while things develop). SIA has the potential to identify and clarify the cause(s) of environmental and natural resources conflicts, and could possibly enable some avoidance or early mitigation. A promising approach may be for ‘conflict-aware’ SIA to watch for critical conflict stages or thresholds and to monitor stakeholders. Effective conflict-aware SIA might also significantly contribute to efforts to achieve sustainable development.</p> |
| [31] | . <a name="Abs1"></a>The sustainable management of coastal natural resources inevitably involves identifying stakeholder conflicts and developing planning processes that prevent these conflicts from becoming intractable disputes. This study links environmental conflict to specific areas within a large ecological system. Specifically, we use Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to map potentially competing stakeholder values associated with establishing protected areas in Matagorda Bay, Texas. By overlaying multiple values associated with a range of stakeholders across space, we are able to identify hotspots of potential conflict as well as areas of opportunity for maximizing joint gains. Mapping stakeholder conflict is an approach to proactively locate potential controversy in response to a specific environmental management proposal and guide decision makers in crafting planning processes that mitigate the possibility of intractable disputes and facilitate the implementation of sustainable coastal policies. Results indicate that under different management scenarios, protected area proposals will generate more conflict in specific areas. Most notably, regulated uses would produce the greatest degree of conflict on or near shore, particularly at the mouth of the Colorado River. Additionally, of all the management scenarios evaluated, the prohibition of coastal structural development would generate the overall highest level of conflict within the Bay. Based on the results, we discuss the policy implications for environmental managers and provide guidance for future research on location-based conflict management within the coastal margin. |
| [32] | . Planners are increasingly turning to tourism as a viable economic development strategy, as many communities experience industrial restructuring. Consequently, many residents are exposed to tourism for the first time, whereas established destinations experience increasing volumes of tourists. Planners are now challenged with understanding how the public perceives tourism in order to gain local support for tourism projects and initiatives. By exploring the literature on resident attitudes toward tourism development, this article examines (1) resident attitudes toward tourism in relation to socioeconomic factors; (2) spatial factors; (3) economic dependency; (4) resident and community typologies; (5) measuring residents鈥 attitudes tourism development; and (6) theoretical perspectives such as community attachment, social exchange theory, and growth machine theory. This literature review provides planners with a basis for initiating citizen participation processes related to tourism issues and identifying groups of people concerned about, or opposed to, tourism planning and development in their communities. |
| [33] | . <h2 class="secHeading" id="section_abstract">Abstract</h2><p id="">This paper examines how a sample of residents of ten New Zealand towns perceives the effect of tourism on their communities. Local opinions and perceptions of tourism were used to segment the sample into four distinct opinion groups using cluster analysis. It was found that those least in favor rated community-oriented issues to be of greater importance than did other residents. Furthermore, importance of local issues to respondents was found to be more useful in interpreting opinion groups than were demographic variables. Thus, researchers interested in investigating antecedents of resident perceptions of tourism need to focus more on personal values (and related constructs) and less on demographic factors.</p><h2 class="secHeading" id="section_abstract">Résumé</h2><p id="">Questions communautaires et choix des habitants vis-à-vis du tourisme. Cet article étudie comment un échantillon d'habitants de dix villes en Nouvelle-Zélande perçoivent l'effet du tourisme dans leur communauté. On a utilisé les opinions et les perceptions locales du tourisme pour segmenter l'échantillon en quatre groupes d'opinion distincts en utilisant l'analyse par groupes. On a trouvé que ceux qui étaient les moins favorables donnaient plus d'importance aux questions communautaires que les autres habitants. En plus, on a trouvé que l'importance que les habitants accordaient aux questions locales était plus utile à l'interprétation des groupes d'opinion que les variables démographiques. Donc, les chercheurs qui s'intéressent aux antécedents des perceptions des habitants envers le tourisme doivent se concentrer davantage sur les valeurs personnelles (et les concepts apparentés) et moins sur les facteurs démographiques.</p> |
| [34] | . |
| [35] | . <a name="Abs1"></a>Recent interest in expanding offshore oil production within waters of the United States has been met with opposition by groups concerned with recreational, environmental, and aesthetic values associated with the coastal zone. Although the proposition of new oil platforms off the coast has generated conflict over how coastal resources should be utilized, little research has been conducted on where these user conflicts might be most intense and which sites might be most suitable for locating oil production facilities in light of the multiple, and often times, competing interests. In this article, we develop a multiple-criteria spatial decision support tool that identifies the potential degree of conflict associated with oil and gas production activities for existing lease tracts in the coastal margin of Texas. We use geographic information systems to measure and map a range of potentially competing representative values impacted by establishing energy extraction infrastructure and then spatially identify which leased tracts are the least contentious sites for oil and gas production in Texas state waters. Visual and statistical results indicate that oil and gas lease blocks within the study area vary in their potential to generate conflict among multiple stakeholders. |
| [36] | . Public participation geographic information systems (PPGIS) pertains to the use of geographic information systems (GIS) to broaden public involvement in policymaking as well as to the value of GIS to promote the goals of nongovernmental organizations, grassroots groups, and community-based organizations. The article first traces the social history of PPGIS. It then argues that PPGIS has been socially constructed by a broad set of actors in research across disciplines and in practice across sectors. This produced and reproduced concept is then explicated through four major themes found across the breadth of the PPGIS literature: place and people, technology and data, process, and outcome and evaluation. The themes constitute a framework for evaluating current PPGIS activities and a roadmap for future PPGIS research and practice. |
| [37] | . This paper presents a method for measuring and analysing tourism and residential development options using survey research techniques that spatially locate public-perceived landscape values and development preferences. Using survey data from Kangaroo Island, South Australia, landscape values and preferences for tourism development are analysed to determine the relative strength of landscape values as predictors of place-specific development preferences. Results indicate that tourism development preferences are most closely associated with recreation, economic and scenic landscape values whereas residential development preferences are most closely associated with recreation, economic and learning values. Preferences for ‘no development’ are most closely associated with wilderness, therapeutic and intrinsic landscape values. A simple development index is generated from the spatial data that ranges from positive (acceptable development) to negative (no development) values. The potential benefits of the method for land-use planning processes are discussed. |
| [38] | . 社会科学中的定性研究方法陈向明关于社会科学的研究方法，学术界素有“定量”（ｑｕａｎｔｉｔａｔｉｖｅ）和“定性”（ｑｕａｌｉｔａｔｉｖｅ）之争。本文无意加入这种论争，而只想对国外日益兴起的新型的“定性研究方法”作一点简单的介绍和评论。因为从弄清楚这个论... . 社会科学中的定性研究方法陈向明关于社会科学的研究方法，学术界素有“定量”（ｑｕａｎｔｉｔａｔｉｖｅ）和“定性”（ｑｕａｌｉｔａｔｉｖｅ）之争。本文无意加入这种论争，而只想对国外日益兴起的新型的“定性研究方法”作一点简单的介绍和评论。因为从弄清楚这个论... |
| [39] | . The number of public participation GIS (PPGIS) applications to inform local and regional land, use planning has increased significantly over the last decade. An important rationale for undertaking, participatory mapping is to anticipate and identify areas of potential land use conflict. To date, there, has not been a systematic evaluation of methods for identifying land use conflict potential with PPGIS data. This study uses data from a regional planning study in Australia to describe and evaluate alternative methods for identifying land use conflict potential. A simple, two dimensional model of land use conflict is presented and operationalized with spatial data to provide a heuristic device for regional land-use planning practitioners. Land use conflict is posited to derive from differences in landscape values and land use preferences that can be formulated into different conflict indices and presented in maps. We demonstrate application of the conflict mapping model using residential and industrial development in the region as examples. The spatial distribution of landscape values, values compatibility scoring, land use preference differences, and a combined values and preferences scoring index are all viable methods for identifying and mapping the potential for land use conflict. The preferred method for assessing the potential for land use conflict is one that integrates two dimensions: land use preference directionality (supporting or opposing) and the importance or intensity of landscape values. We discuss the strengths and limitations of each conflict mapping method. |
| [40] | . Our findings make clear that performing place cannot be taken to be homogeneous and that it inevitably involves multiple perspectives and demands. The struggles, power relations and dynamics of inclusion and exclusion that this multiplicity implicates reveal a form of sub-politics that involves both politicization and depoliticization. Also, it is a form of subpolitics that is more diverse and ambiguous than Beck’s conceptualization presupposes by its emphasis on the role of outsiders as a homogeneous group. |
| [41] | . Examines a specific part of the identity discourse, the question of regional identity. Relationship between geography and the question of identity; Reinvention of regional identity; Methodological problems in regional identity. |
| [42] | . Issues of belonging, exclusion and the creation and maintenance of boundaries have surfaced in recent considerations of the production of space, yet the relevance of boundaries and belonging for understanding the construction of landscape has remained largely implicit. In this paper, I wish to explore more explicitly the connection of boundaries, belonging and landscapes by thinking about how landscapes become spatially bounded scenes that visually communicate what belongs and what does not. My focus is on understanding how landscapes are, in part, constructed through a territorialized politics of belonging鈥搕he discourses and practices that establish and maintain discursive and material boundaries that correspond to the imagined geographies of a polity and to the spaces that normatively embody the polity. To explore this relationship, I consider a controversy surrounding the operation of a slaughterhouse in Hugo, Minnesota, which was used extensively for Ua Dab鈥揳 Hmong tradition of ritual animal sacrifice. The discourses and practices surrounding efforts to remove the slaughterhouse from Hugo, on the one hand, and to have it remain in Hugo, on the other, offer a case through which to explore the politics of belonging and the boundaries that this creates in constructing landscapes. |
| [43] | . This study attempts to answer the question "What influence does an individual's travel have on attitudes concerning who should develop tourism in their community as well as the role of the government in such development?" Research on residents' attitudes toward tourism has traditionally focused on demographic, socioeconomic, and spatial predictor variables, with relatively few consistent findings. Based on the experience use history concept from the leisure and outdoor recreation literature, this study explores a new framework for understanding residents' attitudes toward tourism in two distinct destinations in South Carolina, United States. Tourism use history was used to create resident groups within each community and assess attitudes about who should develop tourism (e. g., local businesses, outside investors and developers, government, or a public-private partnership) and government support for tourism businesses. Results are discussed in relation to the stage of tourism development in each destination. Further development and testing of tourism use history is recommended. |
| [44] | . During the past decades, there have been tremendous strides in the sophistication and power of analyzing, displaying, and interpreting spatial information, particularly Geographic Information Systems (GIS). The vast majority of this work has focused on the physical landscape where increasingly complex models are able to predict, describe, and assess the implications of future planning issues related to watersheds, urban growth, and other planning issues. However, this increasing sophistication in the power of landscape modeling remains disconnected from the sociopolitical realities of the communities and regions which are the subject of these studies. There is a research need to integrate public perceptions and attitudes with the type of information typically found in a landscape assessment. This essay reviews the different types of social and perceptual research that landscape planners have conducted and concludes with recommendations for research avenues that are necessary to describe the social landscape in spatial terms. Landscape planners in the future will need to know as much about the social landscape as they do the physical landscape before embarking on planning actions. (C) 2011 Elsevier BM. All rights reserved. |
