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国际码头企业的珠江三角洲进入路径与空间网络

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程佳佳1,2,, 王成金1,, 何嘉明3
1. 中国科学院地理科学与资源研究所,北京 100101
2. 中国科学院大学,北京 100049
3. 中山大学地理科学与规划学院 综合地理信息研究中心,广州 510275

Expansion of international terminal operators in the Pearl River Delta: Temporal path, spatial network and influence

CHENGJiajia1,2,, WANGChengjin1,, HEJiaming3
1. Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, CAS, Beijing 100101, China
2. University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
3. Center of Integrated Geographic Information Analysis, School of Geography and Planning, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
通讯作者:通讯作者:王成金(1975- ),男,山东沂水人,研究员,博士生导师,主要研究方向为交通地理与区域发展。E-mail: cjwang@igsnrr.ac.cn
收稿日期:2015-11-27
修回日期:2016-04-3
网络出版日期:2016-07-30
版权声明:2016《地理研究》编辑部《地理研究》编辑部
基金资助:国家自然科学基金项目(41171108,41571113)战略咨询院2015年重大咨询项目(Y02015001)邓普顿新兴市场基金邓普顿亚洲增长基金新加坡政府投资集团、马来西亚员工公积金局、加拿大养老计划管理公司、邓普顿新兴市场基金、邓普顿亚洲增长基金、香港全通集团邓普顿新兴市场基金邓普顿亚洲增长基金
作者简介:
-->作者简介:程佳佳(1992- ),女,广东揭阳人,硕士,主要研究方向为交通地理与区域发展。E-mail: chengjj.14s@igsnrr.ac.cn



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摘要
长期以来,港口竞争主要发生在不同港口之间,随着港口管制的放松,许多港口陆续引入私营资本,促进了港口竞争的发展变化,并在理论上形成了新的空间模式。珠江三角洲是中国港口建设最早引入外资和码头市场竞争最激烈的地区,也是中国港口管制放松和外向经济最活跃的地区。在阐述国内外研究现状的基础上,以珠江三角洲集装箱港口群为研究对象,分析国际码头企业进入珠江三角洲的时间路径,包括企业结构、企业数量与股权变化、港口数量等,总结其时间进入规律;基于空间视角,刻画国际码头企业的码头网络,重点包括参股港口分布、装卸能力演化、各企业投资差异等,考察国际码头企业的码头网络特征和扩张规律,并从港口建设经营、港口竞争码头化两方面分析国际码头企业进入对珠江三角洲港口发展的影响。研究表明,国际码头企业的进入路径受改革开放及政策的影响较大,目前已在珠三角码头市场中占据主导地位,集中投资大型港口,呈现先投资枢纽港再进入中小型港口的市场模式;国际码头企业的进入加剧了港口内部码头或泊位利益主体分化而形成港口内部竞争,促使港口竞争形成码头化态势,和记黄埔、招商国际、珠江船务等分别形成了规模庞大的码头网络,相互之间形成竞争和合作格局。研究丰富了港口地理学的研究视角,充实了港口研究的理论范畴。

关键词:国际码头企业;珠江三角洲;市场进入;时间路径;空间网络
Abstract
For a long period of time, port competition mainly existed between different individual ports. With the deregulation of port management, private capitals has been flowing into some ports, leading to the internal port competition and its development. The Pearl River Delta (PRD) region was the first to introduce foreign capitals and also experienced the most fierce market competition in its port construction process. It was also the pioneer for port deregulation in China, which strongly contributed to its prosperous export-oriented economy. On the basis of the related research at home and abroad, this paper chose thirty container ports in the PRD region as the study subjects. From the perspective of terminal operators, the authors analyzed the temporal entering path of the international terminal operators (ITOs), including structure, amount, joint terminal ventures and shareholdings of the entered ITOs and the timeline of the invested ports. Then, the authors depicted the container terminal network of the ITOs in the PRD region, especially the distribution of the invested ports and terminals, the evolution of handling capacities of the joint terminals and spatial disparities between different operators, in order to study the terminal networks' characteristics and expansion rule of the ITOs. Finally, the influence of the ITOs on PRD's port development was further explored, from the views of port construction, port management and terminalization of port competition. The research shows that: (1) the temporal entering path of the ITOs is greatly influenced by policies, reform and opening up, and ITOs are holding a dominant position in the PRD port market now, by means of substantial investments on large-scale ports. These operators initially invested in hub ports, and in the following stage invested in small and medium-sized ports for further expansion; (2) the entry of the ITOs, on one hand, helps to stabilize the supply and provide funding for port construction, and on the other hand, accelerates the differentiation of ownership and beneficiaries in terminals or berths within one port, which intensifies the internal port competition and leads to the terminalization of port competition; (3) Hutchison Port Holdings (HPH), China Merchants Holdings (CMG) and Chu Kong Shipping Development Group Company Limited (CKSG) have established their own huge-scale terminal spatial network respectively, leading to the competition and cooperation pattern among each other. This study enriches not only the research perspective of port geography but also the basic categories of port research.

Keywords:international terminal operato;Pearl River Delta;market entry;temporal path;spatial network

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程佳佳, 王成金, 何嘉明. 国际码头企业的珠江三角洲进入路径与空间网络[J]. , 2016, 35(7): 1314-1328 https://doi.org/10.11821/dlyj201607008
CHENG Jiajia, WANG Chengjin, HE Jiaming. Expansion of international terminal operators in the Pearl River Delta: Temporal path, spatial network and influence[J]. 地理研究, 2016, 35(7): 1314-1328 https://doi.org/10.11821/dlyj201607008

1 引言

港口不仅仅是一个空间,而且是一个经济系统。港口竞争存在空间尺度和经营主体的差异。现有港口竞争可分为六类:区域间港口竞争、港口集群间竞争、港口间竞争、不同港口码头企业间竞争、港口内部竞争、码头内部竞争[1-3]。传统上,****们认为港口是竞争的实体单位,港口竞争即港口之间关于腹地的竞争[4,5]。早期研究对港口竞争的分析集中在港口间和港口集群间,例如Sargent等关注港口竞争与腹地结构的关系[6,7],Hayuth强调不同层级港口间的竞争关系[8],Slack对北美与西欧的集装箱运输市场进行了对比研究[4],Holye等研究了坦桑尼亚、肯尼亚等东非国家的港口体系及港口竞争[9],Ng等对北欧枢纽港转运集装箱的吸引力进行了调查[10],部分****对中韩、中日的港口间竞争进行了比较分析[11-14]
很少有研究对港口内部竞争进行分析,定量研究更少,但仍有部分****认为传统港口竞争概念不完整、难以满足研究需求而需要拓展[1,15,16]。Verhoeff最早提出港口内部竞争的概念[1],随着港口私有化的逐步发展,Hakim等认为全球港口已广泛私有化,促使港口竞争更复杂[17]。世界银行在同一港口内部定义了两种竞争:港口内部竞争和码头内部竞争[18,19]。Langen等定性分析港口内部竞争的利益时,把港口内部竞争作为港口集群绩效的衡量标准[20]。20世纪90年代末开始,随着港航市场的变化,港口竞争的研究重点逐步变化,****们开始关注航运企业、码头企业等因素对港口的影响机制。Heaver认为码头已成为港口研究的基础单位[21]。Marcadon指出码头企业的拓展过程始于港口私有化[22],这促使码头经营从“地主”型向私有化发展[16]。Song等认为港口发展日益由外部因素决定,港航企业促使发展机制细化到码头间[23,24]。Airriess等认为包括码头企业和航运企业的跨国码头企业开始产生[25,16]。Tongzon认为80%以上的集装箱货物在选择港口和班轮公司时,优先选择船公司而不是港口[26]。Wang发现在珠江三角洲,外资投资的经营单元通常是码头而不是港口[27]。Cullinane通过对新加坡港务集团与和记黄埔集团的案例分析,认为码头企业的网络扩张仅在部分地区活跃[28]。Olivier等认为码头经营吸引了两类企业:码头企业和航运企业,且国际码头企业已成为中国集装箱码头投资和建设的重要力量[29]。Notteboom等明确提出港口竞争的新运营主体开始产生[30]。Theys等认为港口内部竞争是港口通过引入私营码头企业而将港口区位、码头设施进行分割而促生的[31],Slack将这种现象界定为港口竞争的码头化[32]。由此可见,码头企业的作用促使港口竞争形成更为复杂化的竞争体系,港口竞争的研究范式从“港口中心论”向“企业中心论”转变。
综上所述,国际上已经形成部分研究,包括理论分析和案例研究,但国内相关研究甚少;国外****多重视码头企业的全球扩张模式,但强调了码头企业的扩张过程和个案分析,未能充分关注对港口体系的发展意义,且忽视了对中国大陆地区的港口研究。国外市场经济体制与中国经济体制差异较大,由此导致码头企业在国内外港口群的扩张行为及其对港口发展的影响也存在较大差异。受毗邻港澳区位条件、改革开放和政治经济体制的影响,珠江三角洲是中国码头企业最早进入且最为活跃的地区,形成了有别于国内其他港口群的扩张模式。有鉴于此,本文从码头企业的视角,以珠江三角洲为案例区,分析国际码头企业进入的时间路径与空间网络,考察国际码头企业与港口空间扩张的关系,揭示港口发展的新机制。

2 概念界定与数据来源

2.1 概念界定

开展研究工作之前,首先需要界定码头企业的概念内涵。码头企业(Terminal Operator)也称为码头运营商或码头经营企业。根据国际航运权威机构——伦敦德鲁里航运咨询公司的研究,码头运营商是指在全球主要经济区域有码头营运业务的营运商[33]。传统上,码头企业是指在港口码头上利用各种设施与设备专门从事货物装卸以及堆存等运输活动并经营泊位的功能性企业[34],包括和记黄埔、新加坡港务、迪拜环球港务集团、现代货箱、珠江船务、AP.穆勒等。随着现代物流资源的整合,拥有船舶的航运企业开始广泛涉足码头市场,从事货物海洋运输的企业和从事码头装卸的企业之间的传统功能边界逐渐模糊[35]。Slack等认为航运企业通过长期租赁世界各地的专用泊位来拓展自身的集装箱码头业务,如长荣海运、韩进海运、川崎汽船、东方海外、商船三井、马士基、中海码头等[32]。Olivier等认为传统码头运营商和航运企业是码头企业的主体[32,36,37]。ParolaRodrigue等提出了三种类型的码头企业,包括以码头业务为主要利润源的码头运营商、以码头业务为成本源的船公司、经营本公司航线的同时为第三方提供服务的集装箱码头子公司[38,34]。Bichou等提出了港航市场四类参与者:码头运营商、船公司、港口机构、货主[39]。同时,Notteboom等认为部分国际大型投资集团进行企业功能和市场业务扩张时,其投资、建设和经营集装箱码头的行为拓宽了码头企业的内涵[40]。根据上述****们的定义,本文的码头企业主要指广义上的码头企业,包括传统的码头企业、投资码头的航运企业及投资集团、金融机构、物流运输行业、贸易行业等其他类型企业,这些企业通过独资开发或收购并经营码头、和港口合资开发经营码头、购买港口经营者股份三种形式来投资码头。但专门的港口机构,例如广州港集团投资广州港、中国对外贸易运输总公司投资深圳港、惠州港务集团投资惠州港,其中的广州港集团、中国对外贸易运输总公司、惠州港务集团等均不作为码头企业进行处理。

2.2 样本与数据来源

本文选取珠江三角洲为研究地域。为使研究更为系统、全面,考虑到粤东西北少数港口、西江上非广东省境内的贵港港、梧州港也存在外资企业进行投资,且这些港口对于国际码头企业在珠三角构筑自身码头网络有着重要作用,作者选取30个集装箱港口作为研究样本,包括深圳、广州、中山、惠州、珠海、肇庆、汕头、湛江、阳江、清远、茂名、汕尾、梧州、贵港、江门、三埠、鹤山、新会、公益、三水、高明、南海、容奇、西南、新市、沙田、麻涌、太平、新塘、五和等港口。本文的国际码头企业特指国外、港澳台及中国大陆的大型企业,包括和记黄埔有限公司、招商局集团、香港珠江船务发展公司、新加坡港务集团、中海码头、中远太平洋、中国外运股份有限公司等。1984年,中国港口开始对外资开放,因此本文数据采集时间点从1985年开始。长期以来,全球范围内的港航业并未形成系统化的官方统计数据,本文数据主要源于《广东统计年鉴》《中国港口年鉴》《中国交通年鉴》、中国港口网、各码头企业门户网站、各港口城市《大黄页》中企业名录、部分航运咨询公司统计的数据等。具体数据包括两部分:① 1985年以来,珠江三角洲港口的统计数据,包括吞吐量、经营种类、码头岸线、泊位数量、泊位水深、泊位吨级、装卸能力等。② 1985年以来,参与投资珠江三角洲港口的码头企业的投资数据,包括投资方、股权、投资时间、投资额等。

3 国际码头企业进入珠三角的时间路径

3.1 国际码头企业结构

截至2013年底,共有25家国际码头企业投资珠江三角洲的集装箱码头,并参与建设和经营。这些企业来源于9个不同的国家和地区,如表1所示,包括中国香港、英国、中国大陆、新加坡、丹麦、印度尼西亚、马来西亚、加拿大和美国。其中,中国香港地区的投资企业最多,共计12家,占国际码头企业数量的48%;其他国家或地区的企业较少,英国有3家企业,美国、新加坡、中国大陆和丹麦各有两家企业,印度尼西亚、马来西亚和加拿大各有一家企业。码头企业的组成结构反映基于地域文化根植性的合作网络[41]。1997年之前香港为英国的殖民地,但与大陆的社会经济联系紧密,尤其是香港企业与珠江三角洲有着深刻的文化、社会价值观的认同,这种港资企业将近一半的现象表明了珠三角码头吸引外资有深刻的本土化特征,也可认为是一种殖民地的母国化特征。
Tab. 1
表1
表1参股珠三角集装箱码头建设的码头企业结构
Tab. 1Distribution and industrial structure of the ITOs in the Pearl River Delta
码头企业类型来源地码头企业类型来源地
香港运通有限公司物流运输中国香港中海码头发展有限公司航运企业中国大陆
香港全通集团投资集团中国香港新加坡国际港务集团有限公司码头企业新加坡
中国外运股份有限公司航运企业中国香港ARH公司码头企业中国香港/英国
招商局国际有限公司码头企业中国香港香港西域集团投资投资集团香港
珠江船务发展有限公司码头企业中国香港AP.穆勒码头企业丹麦
铁行泛亚有限公司航运企业中国英国印尼爱凯尔股份有限公司码头企业印尼
太古洋行有限公司航运企业中国英国马士基航运公司航运企业丹麦
中远太平洋有限公司航运企业中国香港新加坡政府投资集团投资集团新加坡
现代货箱码头有限公司码头企业中国香港马来西亚员工公积金局投资集团马来西亚
香港嘉里贸易有限公司国际贸易中国香港加拿大养老计划管理公司投资集团加拿大
和记黄埔有限公司码头企业中国香港邓普顿新兴市场基金投资集团美国
中国远洋运输集团公司航运企业中国大陆邓普顿亚洲增长基金投资集团美国
达力集团投资集团中国香港


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国际码头企业是一个广泛的概念,可能有着不同的行业背景基础。从行业类型来看,这25家外资企业中,属于码头经营背景的集装箱码头企业、属于投资集团的外资企业均各有8家,航运领域的企业有7家,另外2家分别属于物流运输行业以及国际贸易行业,其中来源地属香港的多是码头企业。行业结构表明上述国际码头企业分别位居港口物流链的不同环节,相互之间围绕码头投资、建设与运营而形成了功能联系或产业链。其中,码头企业主营业务是集装箱码头经营,最大特点是通过对外投资扩张自己的码头网络;航运企业青睐于投资重要的中转港码头以配合其航线网络,但仅把码头业务作为其成本中心;投资集团则涉及到比较多的行业,拥有多家子公司;物流运输和国际贸易正是港口供应链的两大组成部分,通过服务链和增值链强化了码头的价值传递功能。珠三角港口在吸引多种类型码头企业的同时,既完善了码头的价值功能,也促进了港航合作,促使航运企业与码头企业成为利益共同体。

3.2 国际码头企业的进入时间表

国际码头企业在珠江三角洲的进入路径受中国政府政策的影响较大。过去30年,中国港口码头的管理和投融资政策经历了不同的发展阶段,港口行业从以中央政府管理为主和国有独资垄断行业逐渐转变为地方政府管理为主和呈现主体多元化趋势的行业。在每个阶段,对海外资本进入有不同的开放程度和管制程度,并直接影响了国际码头企业的进入以及中国港口的建设与发展。1984年以前,中国港口由政府机构直接垄断控制,严禁外资进入,直到1984年“以收抵支、以港养港”政策以及1985年《关于中外合资建设码头优惠待遇的暂行规定》的颁布,国际码头企业才开始进入中国大陆地区。在珠三角地区,这些企业主要采用投资建造全新码头的方式参与港口码头的建设、经营及管理,而具体主要采用与中国大陆企业或港务局组建合资企业的模式。如图1所示,珠三角集装箱港口的合资企业数量一直呈现稳步增长的趋势,除个别年份(1987年、1996年、2000年)外,每年都有新增的合资企业,由1985年的1家增加到2013年的54家。1985年第一家合资企业在广州港成立,2000-2006年增长最快,共新增了21家,其中仅2006年就新增了6家,约占合资企业总数的11.1%。
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图1珠三角引进外资的港口总数、合资港口企业与国际码头企业累计数(1985-2013年)
-->Fig. 1The number of invested ports, joint ventures and ITOs in the Pearl River Delta from 1985 to 2013
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20世纪80年代中期以来,国际码头企业的珠三角进入,大致可分为四个阶段(图1表2),每一阶段的企业进入都有特定的历史背景。第一阶段,1985-1992年,珠三角以其改革开放和进出口优势,吸引了不少外资,国际码头企业对中国港口码头的投资集中在珠三角,共引进11家企业,包括招商国际、珠江船务、和记黄埔、中外运、中远太平洋、现代货箱等,合资企业数量达到12家,1992年时外资股比首次达到50%,打破了不能控股的底限。这一时期进入的码头企业几乎全是大中型港资企业,主要原因有二:一是大中型企业发展阶段超前,呈现抢先占领国内外重要码头市场的发展战略;二是香港临近珠三角,港企与珠三角自古以来有着深刻的文化、社会价值观认同,其在珠三角码头的投资实质上也是香港航运功能的延伸。第二阶段,1993年原交通部提出鼓励中外合资、合作租赁、建设经营公用码头泊位和货主专用码头,越来越多的外资企业进入珠三角码头市场,同年就进入了6家,且外资股比开始超过50%;1994-2000年,政策逐渐对外资开放,共有10家外资企业进入中国市场,珠三角增长缓慢,仅引进2家,合资企业新增5家,2000年总量达到24家,但外资股权却大幅度提高,外资在盐田国际中所占股份达73%,形成绝对控股优势。这一时期进入的企业主要是中远集团、中海码头等中国大陆本土的大型码头企业,借鉴先前进入的港资企业对珠三角码头的投资、建设和经营经验,本土企业开始发展起来,并逐渐进军珠三角码头市场。第三,2001-2006年,国家出台的《“港口管理权下放地方政府和政企分开”港口管理体制改革》《外商投资产业指导目录》《港口法》《全国沿海港口总体规划》等政策使港口业进入以企业投资为主的时期,珠三角新引进4家外资企业,国际码头企业对珠三角的投资再度密集化,合资企业增长迅速,共新增18家,2003年外资首次占100%的股权。这一时期进入的最大码头企业是新加坡港务(PSA),2000年时新加坡港本部遭受重创,马士基、台湾长荣把集装箱转口业务几乎全部转到巴生港,导致2001年PSA营运收入出现30年来的第一次下滑,税后净利下跌8.9%,为了在全球范围内同和记黄埔形成竞争格局,被迫于2001年投资广州集装箱码头,进入和黄固有的珠三角地盘。之后进入的企业则比较分散,分别来源于英国、丹麦和印尼等。第四,2006年至今,进入珠三角码头市场的国际码头企业较少,仅2011年进入了1家,但此时世界主要的码头企业几乎均已进入珠三角,国际码头企业对该区域的投资开始进入平稳阶段,2013年时共有54家合资企业。总体而言,受改革开放及政策的影响,1993年、2000年是国际码头企业进入珠三角的两个转折点,且随时间推移外资参与广度不断提高,至2013年底,国际码头企业投资的珠三角码头泊位约260个,泊位岸线总长度约55 km,所投资的码头泊位设计能力达8352.5万TEU。
Tab. 2
表2
表2国际码头企业的珠三角进入时间表
Tab. 2Entrance timeline of the ITOs into the Pearl River Delta
年份股权变化(%)新增进入珠三角的国际码头企业新增引进外资的港口
政策允许
股权比例
实际外资
所持股权
个数企业名称个数港口名称
19851香港运通1广州
1986<50332中外运、招商国际1深圳
1989405珠江船务、铁行泛亚、
太古、中远太平洋、现
代货箱
1三埠
1990491香港嘉里贸易
19911南海
1992502和记黄埔、达力集团3珠海、三水、高明
1993=50706新加坡政府投资集团、马来西亚员工公积金局、加拿大养老计划管理公司、邓普顿新兴市场基金、邓普顿亚洲增长基金、香港全通集团1清远
1994731中远集团
1995502江门、阳江
1997701汕头
1999501中海码头1湛江
2001651新加坡港务
2002>50651ARH公司
20031001梧州
20041001香港西域集团投资1中山
2005=100651惠州
20061002AP.穆勒、印尼爱凯尔3肇庆、鹤山、贵港
20071沙田
20111马士基


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3.3 港口的进入时间表

港口的进入时间表方面,如图1表2所示,1985-2013年国际码头企业陆续投资、建设与运营珠三角的港口,从1985年的1个增加到2013年的19个,占了该地区港口总量的63.3%。国际码头企业在珠三角投资的基本原则之一是占领港口码头经营市场的至高点,因为珠三角的集装箱港口主要是腹地型港口,货箱充足,投资这类港口有利于码头企业集装箱操作量规模的迅速提升和航运网络资源的控制,如和记黄埔、招商国际、珠江船务等企业优先投资深圳港、广州港主要是为了扩充香港货源而力图在珠江三角洲建立自身码头网络。1990年以前,仅有广州、深圳、三埠三个港口吸引外资企业,港口数量比较少。1991-2002年,许多港口陆续引入外资,从1991年的4个增加到2002年的12个,新增了南海、珠海、三水、高明、清远、江门、阳江、汕头、湛江等港口。2003-2007年,珠三角港口对外资的引入速度极快,4年间新增了7个港口,包括梧州、中山、惠州、肇庆、鹤山、贵港、沙田等港口。2008年以后没有引进外资的新港口,一方面珠三角多数港口已存在合资码头,同时也可能是受金融危机影响。同时,20世纪80年代中期以来,国际码头企业参股的港口码头开始承担珠三角主要的集装箱吞吐量。2013年,有外资参股的港口完成吞吐量占珠三角总量的94.7%,外部资本已在珠三角码头市场中占据重要地位,甚至主导码头市场。可见,国际码头企业在珠三角呈现“先是枢纽港,然后再向中小型港口逐步扩张”的进入模式,且其进入在一定程度上促进了珠三角集装箱港口业的发展。

4 国际码头企业的珠三角码头网络

4.1 参股码头的分布格局及演化

国际码头企业投资集装箱码头,可以用多个指标进行度量,其中集装箱装卸能力是重要评价指标。根据历年外资参与投资建设的珠三角码头装卸能力的变化情况,将珠三角参股码头的装卸能力格局与港口分布格局的演化过程划分为五个阶段,如图2所示。
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图2国际码头企业参股投资码头的装卸能力格局演化
-->Fig. 2Evolution of loading and unloading capacities of invested terminals
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(1)1985-1988年,仅有广州港、深圳港有国际码头企业投资建设码头,1988年时参股码头装卸能力分别为25万TEU、30万TEU,尚处起步发展阶段。国际码头企业的投资焦点是该区域规模较大的枢纽港与干线港,而且集中在珠江口。
(2)1989-1993年,国际码头企业参股投资码头的港口新增了三埠、南海、珠海、高明、三水、清远港,投资码头开始日渐向中小型港口拓展,并从珠江口向临近地区拓展,参股码头总装卸能力从1989年的195万TEU增加到1993年的2928万TEU,增加了14倍。其中,深圳港发展迅猛,集中了国际码头企业投资码头装卸能力的主要份额,比例在82%~95%间浮动,从1989年的160万TEU增加到1993年的2703万TEU,年均增速高达106.83%,尤其1993年成立的盐田国际集装箱码头和赤湾港航股份有限公司,共新增了25个泊位,提高了1900万TEU的装卸能力。该阶段是珠江三角洲干线港——深圳港的集中发展阶段。
(3)1994-2000年,国际码头企业参股投资码头的港口总数从8个增加至12个,新增港口趋于分散分布,重点在中小型港口之间拓展,但总装卸能力增加缓慢,年均增速仅为2%,2000年达到3414.5万TEU,除4个新增参股码头的港口以及深圳港有缓慢增长外,其他有国际码头企业投资的码头的装卸能力均保持原有规模。该阶段的核心特征是在保持原有枢纽港与干线港投资的前提下,积极投资中小型港口而拓展覆盖空间,建立喂给航运网络。
(4)2001-2006年,国际码头企业参股投资码头的港口总数从12个增加至18个,新增港口从珠江口拓展到内河地区,主要集中在中小型港口,但此时另一大型港口——广州港开始受到关注。国际码头企业投资的总装卸能力从2001年的4414.5万TEU增加到2006年的7127.5万TEU,增长率为10.06%。其中,深圳港开始新一轮的大幅提高装卸能力,2001年盐田三期新建10个码头泊位而新增900万TEU的装卸能力,2002年成立的大铲湾现代港口发展有限公司贡献了7个码头泊位和1000万TEU的装卸能力,将深圳港参股码头的总装卸能力提高至5693万TEU。同时,广州港也开始快速发展,2004年南沙一期、2006年南沙二期的建成将其参股码头的总装卸能力从2001年的141.5万TEU提高到2006年的791.5万TEU,增长了4.6倍。该阶段是深圳、广州两港的加速成长阶段。
(5)2007年以后,新增的装卸能力开始趋于空间分散,参股码头陆续壮大,步入共同发展阶段。其中,广州港仍保持上一阶段的增长态势,2011年南沙三期新增570万TEU的装卸能力,缩小与深圳港的差距。2013年底,参股港口群形成以深圳港、广州港为核心,惠州港、珠海港、沙田港为次中心的装卸能力分布格局。综合来看,对于珠三角港口,外资投资焦点是枢纽港,且呈现先是枢纽港,然后再是中小型港口陆续引入外资的进入模式。同时,有外资进入的港口主要是沿海港口,内河港仅有南海、梧州、中山、贵港、肇庆、鹤山港等,且除南海港外,其他内河港的外资进入时间均较晚,均在2003年以后,这与中国先开放沿海地区再开放内陆地区的改革开放历程有关。

4.2 国际码头企业的投资及参股差异

上述分析是将国际码头企业融合集成进行考察,但Airriess等****的研究表明,不同码头企业之间存在明显不同的关注重点与空间拓展战略[25,28,29,32]。各国际码头企业在珠三角的投资重点不同,参股特征也存在一定差异,形成了不同空间、规模的码头网络。码头网络的不同显示各企业竞争的重点区域或网络战略的差异。因此,需要从码头企业、港口两个视角切入,对国际码头企业的珠三角码头投资及参股差异进行深入剖析。
从码头企业的角度看,各企业的码头网络呈现不同的空间特征。与北美、南美地区码头经营市场较为分散不同,珠三角部分码头企业扩张较快,已完成了主要港口的码头网络战略布局,并形成鼎立竞争格局。如表3所示,港资企业占有绝对的投资优势,招商国际、和记黄埔和珠江船务投资珠三角港口的码头数量最多(图3),在空间上形成明显的码头网络。目前,招商国际在珠三角的码头网络最大,而且倾向于投资大中型港口的码头,同9个不同港口组建了17家合资企业,市场占有率最高,约为31.5%。和记黄埔的扩张范围也比较广,共有15家合资企业分布在6个港口,且倾向于投资同母港香港港有直接运输业务联系的深圳港,尤其是盐田港区,1994年时在盐田国际中持有高达73%的股权,随后组建的其他合资企业也均在65%以上,形成控股的投资优势。珠江船务是香港重要的支线航运公司,长期以来主要投资珠三角中小型内河港口的集装箱码头,目前共有12家合资企业,分布在9个港口,为香港和临近的中小型内河港口提供驳船喂给运输。中外运具有一定规模的空间网络,共有4家合资企业分布在4个港口。现代货箱有3家合资企业,全集中在深圳港。中远太平洋、中海码头、新加坡港务均有2家合资企业分布在2个港口。其中,新加坡港务进入珠三角较晚,在新加坡港本部受到严重挑战后,为了在全球能与和记黄埔形成竞争格局,2001年才进军珠三角投资广州港码头。由此可见,大型码头企业均已在珠三角建立起基本的码头空间网络,并在宏观层面上对珠三角港口的发展产生深远影响。
Tab. 3
表3
表3国际码头企业在珠三角的合资企业、合资港口数量
Tab. 3Structure of the joint ventures and invested ports by ITOs in the Pearl River Delta
国际码头企业合资企业数量合资港口数量合资港口名称
招商国际有限公司179深圳(40/50/100)、三埠(-)、南海(-)、高明(-)、清远(-)、肇庆(-)、鹤山(-)、沙田(-)、广州(-)
和记黄埔有限公司156珠海(50)、南海(50)、深圳(65/73)、江门(50)、汕头(70)、惠州(33.59/50/80)
珠江船务发展有限公司129三埠(-)、南海(25/37.5/50)、高明(-)、清远(-)、珠海(75)、肇庆(-)、鹤山(50)、沙田(30)、三水(30)
中国外运股份有限公司44深圳(33)、梧州(100)、中山(100)、沙田(49)
现代货箱码头有限公司31深圳(10/20/65)
中远太平洋有限公司22深圳(17.5, 2005年后为0)、广州(39)
中海码头发展有限公司22湛江(50)、广州(40)
新加坡国际港务集团有限公司22广州(49)、沙田(49)
印尼爱凯尔股份有限公司21贵港(78/100)
铁行泛亚有限公司11深圳(22.5)
太古洋行有限公司11深圳(17.5)
香港运通有限公司11广州(-)
香港嘉里贸易有限公司11深圳(25)
达力集团11深圳(49)
香港全通集团控股11广州(70)
中国远洋运输集团公司11广州(-)
ARH公司11深圳(49)
香港西域集团投资11珠海(2010后股权归珠江船务所有)
AP.穆勒11广州(20)
马士基11广州(-)
新加坡政府投资集团11深圳(1.11)
马来西亚员工公积金局11深圳(0.72)
加拿大养老计划管理公司11深圳(0.65)
邓普顿新兴市场基金11深圳(0.54)
邓普顿亚洲增长基金11深圳(9.65)

注:括号里数字表示码头企业在港口码头中的股权占比,单位为%,(-)表示不详。其中,珠江船务和招商国际在三埠港、高明港、清远港、肇庆港的股权分别共为40%、50%、70%、100%。
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图3主要国际码头企业在珠三角的码头网络
-->Fig. 3Container terminal networks of main ITOs in the Pearl River Delta
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从港口的角度看,尽管国际码头企业在珠三角参股投资的码头较多,但仍存在投资较集中的热点港口,这些港口的集装箱吞吐量也较高。合资企业数量方面,部分港口的合资码头企业数量较多,尤其是深圳港,30年来共形成18家合资企业,以盐田、蛇口两港区最为突出,成为海外资本竞争投资的焦点。其次是广州港、南海港,分别有8家和4家合资企业,再次是沙田港、珠海港和惠州港,均有3家合资企业。从投资方——国际码头企业的数量来看,部分港口成为投资重点。其中,深圳吸引了15家国际码头企业,广州拥有9家,沙田拥有4家,南海、珠海均有3家,其他港口则较少。可见,具有较高利润回报的大型港口往往成为国际码头企业的投资热点,也成为各企业竞相竞争的焦点,由此而导致这些大型港口成为国际码头企业进入结构最复杂的港口。
综合来看,国际码头企业对珠三角港口的投资集中于枢纽港(南海港虽非枢纽港,但因佛山内河港区较多,且毗邻广州,一定程度上分流了枢纽港的货源,因此合资企业较多),并不断向中小型港口进行扩张,极大地提高了珠三角港口的集装箱吞吐能力。深圳—广州的双核心港口格局侧面反映了众多码头企业为了扩充自身货源以提升集装箱操作量规模,倾向于占领珠三角港口码头经营市场至高点,且力图在珠三角建立码头网络。同时,本土优势或同大陆企业具有紧密资产关系的优势助推部分国际码头企业积极参与珠三角的码头建设与经营,使其逐步从单一港口的层面向港口群的宏观层面对珠三角港口发展产生深远影响。

5 国际码头企业扩张对珠三角港口的影响

5.1 港口建设与经营市场

随着全球航运资源的整合,国际码头运营商和大型航运企业通过横纵向扩张战略在珠三角不断发展壮大码头网络,对其港口体系产生重要影响。
第一,私营或民营企业性质的国际码头企业具有拓宽融资渠道、稳定货源的优势,对港航市场有较强的适应性,减轻公共财政负担和解决港口建设资金不足的问题,带来先进管理理念、技术和人才,以提高港口运营效率和服务质量。深圳港盐田、蛇口、赤湾港区集装箱业务在短时间内高速发展,2013年集装箱的吞吐量超过香港港,低迷的广州港在2004年南沙港务有限公司的支持下重新恢复活力,这些发展证明了该结论。
第二,国际码头企业的进入实现了航运资源与港口码头资源的整合,不断促进了珠三角港口建设的民营化趋势,提高了珠三角港口的吞吐量与在整个中国航运网络中的地位。港口建设资金的来源与国家对港口性质的界定有着密切关系,珠三角港口在现实中的管制放松比政策要快,在全国内较早实行港口投资主体的多元化,均得力于国际码头企业的投资,甚至促进了交通领域内其他交通设施的民营化进程。
第三,码头企业的投资使港务局不再完全拥有港口的经营调度权和货流分配权,港口中国有全资和国有控资码头的比例不断下降,外资企业的影响力逐步提升,甚至存在形成垄断的风险。2013年,珠三角港口码头的合资率为63.3%,外部资本完成的实际操作量占珠三角港口吞吐量的50%以上,主要码头企业控制了珠三角大部分集装箱量,国际码头企业已在该区域码头市场占据主导地位。部分国际码头企业的股权比例极大,尤其和记黄埔几乎均持有50%以上的股权,甚至形成70%和73%的绝对控股,呈现垄断部分港口码头经营的趋势。
第四,码头企业引发的港口内部竞争也导致了一定的负面影响。港口基础设施建设具有投资量大、回收期长等特点,港口内部过度竞争使港口的供应商和运营单位蜂拥抢夺港口市场份额,在此环境下他们所提供的商品和服务不受任何数量的约束限制,很容易造成产能过剩现象、港口设施的重复建设和资源的浪费,导致港口盈利水平下降、甚至破产。另外,港口的各个运营部门为争取自身利润最大化,往往会忽视港口的环境保护,过多的港口服务公司也使得周边地区交通受阻,这种外部的负面效应在很大程度上影响了港口的发展,使得港口经济偏离帕累托效应。

5.2 港口竞争码头化与码头空间竞争

国际码头企业空间扩张的直接结果是珠三角港口群竞争加剧,主要集中于枢纽港与近域港口间,同时促使港口竞争更为复杂化,形成了相同港口不同码头运营商(①包括港口内同一码头内不同码头运营商的竞争、港口内不同码头间不同码头运营商的竞争。)、相同码头运营商不同港口、相同码头运营商不同公司(较大型的码头运营商旗下有多家子公司,母公司与子公司同时投资相同港口或不同港口时形成的竞争。)三类内部竞争,对港口体系的职能关系与规模结构产生重要影响。图4反映了珠三角主要码头企业的空间扩张情况,非红色线连接的是投资不同港口的同一码头企业,红色线连接的是同一港口内不同的码头企业。总体上看,深圳港的联系线密度最大,受外资影响最大,其次是广州港。
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图4基于“码头企业”视角的珠三角集装箱港口群竞争格局
-->Fig. 4Competitive pattern of container ports in the Pearl River Delta based on terminal operators
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从同一码头企业联系线来看,招商国际、珠江船务、和记黄埔三者的联系线最密集。招商国际已基本建立在珠三角的港口网络,重点投资深圳港,在深圳港内投资了多个码头且股权较大;一方面拥有相同股东有利于码头间的信息共享等合作,另一方面也使招商国际稳固自身在珠三角的地位,增强与和记黄埔对抗的竞争力。珠江船务在珠三角的港口网络虽比和记黄埔广,但主要在内河港口中占有优势,且其网络覆盖主要覆盖中小型港口,股权较低。和记黄埔的码头网络覆盖了珠三角的多数大中型港口,且在深圳盐田港区中占有绝对优势。在港口间层面上,招商国际与和记黄埔形成合作伙伴,共同服务深圳港,与服务于广州港的新加坡港务、中远太平洋、中海码头对立,由此形成香港、新加坡以此两大港为基地全力打造各自珠三角门户港的竞争局面。这些码头企业在投资深圳、广州港的同时不断扩张自身网络,如招商国际在南海港、三埠港等的部分码头占有较大股权,和记黄埔控股了汕头、珠海、南海等港口的部分码头,新加坡港务控股了沙田港部分码头等。
从同一港口内不同码头企业联系线来看,深圳港、广州港两港内部不同码头企业间的联系较为复杂。可见,码头企业通过投资临近港口泊位设施建设以扩大腹地范围,加强货源的喂给和控制码头资源,以此加速港口的枢纽化过程,形成更复杂的港口等级和航运模式[42]。在深圳港,招商国际、和记黄埔、现代货箱三大码头企业各自控股不同的码头,和记黄埔主控东部盐田港区,现代货箱掌控大铲湾港区并且投资蛇口港区,招商国际同时投资赤湾和蛇口港区。因此,在港口内部层面上,招商国际与和记黄埔、现代货箱彼此形成竞争,但这三大码头企业在深圳港内构建三足鼎立的同时也存在一定的合作趋向(如蛇口、赤湾港区同时引入招商国际)。广州港主要由新加坡港务掌控,虽与内部的中海码头、中远太平洋等也存在竞争,但竞争程度低于深圳港。其他中小型港口也几乎都拥有两家或以上的码头企业,由此形成了港口内部不同码头企业的网络竞争。
一个港口机构有着明显的市场权势时,就会倾向于引入港口间竞争和港口内部竞争,形成复杂的投资结构,而不是允许一个码头企业垄断所有码头。例如,深圳蛇口港区由招商局、中远集团、铁行渣华、太古集团共同投资。近几年来,投资珠三角的码头企业间还涉及重组、战略联盟、并购等问题。一家码头企业同时拥有另外一家码头企业的部分股权,如招商国际拥有现代货箱27.01%的股权、和记黄埔曾向竞争对手新加坡港务出售股权。这些都将影响码头企业的市场份额以及投资倾向,从而间接影响跟其相关的码头之间的竞合关系,使珠三角港口群的竞争格局更加复杂。

6 结论与讨论

码头企业在珠三角的空间扩张是国际码头网络的一部分,其在珠三角和国际上其他主要地区的拓展过程均始于港口私有化,都遵循“以市场经济为导向”的拓展规律来投资码头,其网络扩张均促使了枢纽港的发展演化。但码头企业扩张同港口的管理模式及政治体制直接关联,受政策、经济和文化因素的影响,珠三角地区在码头企业进入的时间路径、股权结构、码头企业特征、码头网络特征等方面都形成了有别于国内外其他案例区的码头企业组织特点。基于以上背景,本文从码头企业的视角,从时空两个维度,分析国际码头企业进入珠江三角洲的时间路径及其码头网络扩张的规律及影响,探索港口和码头作为港口地理学研究单位的意义。
研究发现,进入珠三角的25家国际码头企业来源于9个不同的国家和地区,分属码头运营商、航运企业、投资集团、物流运输和国际贸易5种类型,具有明显的本土化和母国化特征。受改革开放及政策的影响,其进入可分为允许外资进入、允许外资控股、股权限制取消、以外资为主导四个阶段,其中1993年、2000年是两大转折时间点。国际码头企业在珠三角参股投资的港口较多,呈现先投资枢纽港再进入中小型港口的投资模式。和记黄埔、招商国际、珠江船务等主要码头企业控制了珠三角大部分集装箱装卸量,且其经营日益向深圳、广州、南海、沙田等大型港口集中,倾向于占领珠三角码头市场至高点并扩张码头网络。其中,深圳和广州港是珠三角码头化竞争最激烈的港口,和记黄埔、新加坡港务分别以两大港口为基地打造各自的珠三角门户港。国际码头企业的持续进入,促使珠三角参股港口装卸能力的格局经历了“起步发展—集中发展—缓慢发展—加速成长—共同发展”五个阶段的演化,形成以深圳、广州港为核心,惠州、珠海、沙田港为次中心的空间格局。国际码头企业的进入有利于稳定货源、实现港航资源整合、解决港口建设资金不足等问题,但加剧了港口内部或泊位的利益主体分化而形成港口内部竞争。
实质上,外资对港口码头的投资的根本利益在于通过资金纽带控制该区域的深水港口资源,从而在最大程度上分享该区域经济发展的成果。因此,国际码头企业的出现打破了港口竞争的传统路径,促使了港口竞争的模式变化,码头已成为目前港口竞争的基本单元。目前,港口竞争的利益主体从港口个体到码头个体、从港口机构到码头企业的转变将港口竞争演变为码头竞争、将港口机构竞争演变为码头企业竞争。港口竞争的码头化促使码头企业在一定地域范围内从节点竞争演变为网络竞争。在单体港口内,这种竞争是码头企业间的竞争;在港口群内,便成为码头企业空间网络间的竞争。这种投资模式对码头企业在全国其他港口的投资建设提供了经验借鉴。一方面,可通过投资基础设施调整货流组织流向,促进资源整合,如经营不同港口的码头企业通过联合投资、收购或互相持股或参股及转股的途径,组建合资码头企业以对港口资源进行横向和纵向整合,甚至加速港口的枢纽化过程;另一方面,同一港口或码头应注重多家码头企业的引入和参股,构筑复杂的港口码头股权结构,使企业间形成竞争与抗衡态势,以降低单一企业的垄断程度。同时,加强码头企业与港口行政机构的联系,但在扩大企业自主权的同时,也应密切关注政府在港口私有化过程中所扮演的角色以及同私营企业的职能界定,设立码头企业的全国占有率警戒线等,修改完善港口行业法规,防止码头企业在某些港口或码头形成垄断,以此推动港口的市场化发展。需指出的是,港口的码头化竞争有一定的适用性,港口内部竞争主要适用于大型枢纽港或干线港。
The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

参考文献 原文顺序
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This paper seeks to increase understanding of how China's state-owned shipping industry was reorganized during the 1990s, with special reference to the country's liner shipping connections between and within Asia. Changes in the organization, approach and set of connections of the state-owned China Ocean Shipping (Group) Company (Cosco) and its post-1993 offshoot COSCO Container Lines Company Ltd. (Coscon) are examined. This review provides a springboard for a detailed analysis of shifts in both extra- and intra-Asian shipping patterns between 1990 and 2000, and consideration of their strategic implications. Short-sea shipping is defined, and the phenomenon's operational strengths and weaknesses are discussed. The study of Cosco/Coscon suggests that the strengths of short-sea liner shipping stem from the ability to use the self-sealing maritime corridor stretching from the Russian Far East to the Indonesian archipelago. Sea transportation also offers safety, environmental and social benefits compared to competing land-based modes. The primary weakness is that door-door transport services usually cannot be offered except where dedicated and private terminals are available. The lack of integration is compounded by the inflexibility on service departures/arrivals. Coscon is developing services to minimize these weaknesses.
[12]Ducruet C.Port-city relationships in Europe and Asia
. Journal of International Logistics Trade, 2006, 13(4): 13-35.
URL摘要
This paper examines the nature of port-city relationships in 2 major port regions of the world, Europe and Asia. Although this issue is well analyzed through either isolated case studies or general models, a complementary approach based on urban and port indicators available for 121 port cities is proposed. In terms of demographic size and container traffic, the decline of port-urban dependence is shown, stemming from changes in global transportation and urban development. However, European and Asian port cities are not identically confronted with the same challenges, notably in terms of their hinterlands. A factor analysis highlights a regional differentiation of port-city relationships according to their insertion in both urban and port systems, with a core-periphery dualism in Europe and a port-city hierarchy in Asia. Thus, the distance to inland markets for European ports and the size of coastal markets for Asian ports are the main factors explaining the nature of port-city relationships in the 2 areas. It helps to evaluate which European and Asian port cities are comparable beyond their cargo volumes, by putting together micro (local environments) and macro (regional patterns) factors.
[13]Yap W Y, Jasrnine L.Competition dynamics between container ports in East Asia
. Transportation Research Part A, 2006, 40: 35-51.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2005.03.001URL摘要
This paper unveils the competitive dynamics between the major container ports in East Asia by analyzing their extent and intensity. Time series data, with the longest series dating back to 1970 and ending 2001, on container throughput for the ports of Hong Kong, Kaohsiung, Keelung, Kobe, Nagoya, Osaka, Pusan, Taichung, Tokyo and Yokohama are computed. Cointegration tests are employed to determine the existence of long run relationship between various port pairs. Error correction models are constructed to determine short run inter-port dynamics. The results reveal that Hong Kong and Pusan are beneficiaries from inter-port competition in the region for the past three decades. The study suggests that inter-port competition in the region would intensify in the future as the center of gravity of cargo volume shifts to mainland China. Moreover, concentration of services by shipping lines at the primary load centers might lead to intense competition between the primary load centers and ports located in close proximity that share their hinterlands.
[14]Yeo G, Roe M, Dinwoodie J.Evaluating the competitiveness of container ports in Korea and China
. Transportation Research: Part A, 2008, 42: 910-921.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2008.01.014URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
Changes in world trade and the shipping environment have created ever-increasing competition between ports in North-east Asia, especially Korea and China. Following intensive state investment in port developments through large-scale projects, Chinese ports now threaten to oust Busan in Korea as the regional hub. To identify and evaluate the competitiveness of major ports in the region, this paper identifies the components influencing their competitiveness and presents a structure for evaluating them. Based on the literature related to port selection and competition, a regional survey of shipping companies and owners employed factor analysis to reveal that port service, hinterland condition, availability, convenience, logistics cost, regional centre and connectivity are the determining factors in these regions.
[15]Heaver T D.The evolving roles of shipping lines in international logistics
. International Journal of Maritime Economics, 2002, 4(3): 210-230.
https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.ijme.9100042URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
Shipping lines are under pressure to expand the geographical reach of their services and to invest in value added services. The former, addressed by a number of strategies including slot charters, alliances and mergers and acquisitions, has been quite widely treated in the literature. The ways in which the lines are enhancing the range of their services has been subject to less study and is the focus of this paper. Viewed within the context of the economics of vertical integration, the paper reviews the organisation strategies of lines in relation to terminal management, intermodal services and logistics services. There is only close integration with shipping in the management of dedicated terminals and intermodal services. With one exception, P&O Nedlloyd's Value Added Services, the management of logistics services remains ostensibly quite distinct from shipping. In terms of pricing practices, this is reality but it leaves uncertain the level and ways of sharing information and resources related to logistics. The interest of lines in developing new relationships with shippers will place further pressure on collective pricing practices in liner shipping.International Journal of Maritime Economics (2002) 4, 210-230. doi: 10.1057/palgrave.ijme.9100042
[16]Notteboom T E.Consolidation and contestability in the European container handling industry
. Maritime Policy and Management, 2002, (29): 256-269.
https://doi.org/10.1080/03088830210132614URL [本文引用: 3]摘要
The first part of this paper brings into discussion some recent changes in the dynamics of the European container handling business, in particular as a result of vertical and horizontal integration strategies of container terminal operators. The industry structure has become sufficiently consolidated to raise a fundamental question about whether market forces are sufficient to prevent the abuse of market power. In this context, reference is made to the theory of contestable markets. The second part of the paper looks more closely to the issue of contestability by means of an exploratory and qualitative study of elements that could prevent other players entering or exiting the European container handling market. As such, a first indication is given of the degree of contestability in the container handling industry.
[17]Hakim S, Paul S, Gary V, et al.Privatizing Transportation Systems. New York: Greenwood Press, 1996. [本文引用: 1]
[18]World Bank.Port Reform Tool Kit
. Washington, DC: World Bank, 2000.
[本文引用: 1]
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[20]De Langen P W, Pallis A A. The effect of intra-port competition
. International Journal of Transport Economics, 2006, 33(1): 61-86.
[本文引用: 1]
[21]Heaver T D.The implications of increased competition among ports for port policy and management
. Maritime Policy and Management, 1995, 22: 125-133.
https://doi.org/10.1080/03088839500000045URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
The increased competition faced by ports is more focused than previously on the performance of logistics systems of which the individual terminals in ports are critical hubs. The changes in competitive conditions raise issues about appropriate public port policies and strategies of port managements. This paper argucs that the port industry should (and is) moving in the direction of more harmonized policies based on economic principles. Port policies based on cost recovery from users of port facilities and services need to be adopted as the international standard. The competitive environment favours considerable local autonomy. Port management, in addition to possible direct responsibility for terminal management, needs to focus on activities with economies of scale or scope. Such activities, which span the requirements of terminals and may even warrant inter-port cooperation, enhance the services available for many port users.
[22]Marcadon J.Containerization in the ports of Northern and Western Europe
. GeoJournal, 1999, 48(1): 15-20.
https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007032601786URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
This paper examines some of the contemporary features of containerisation at the ports of Northern and Western Europe. Ports are having to adjust to a wide range of forces, both local and global. Enhanced competition between ports is shaping developments. Ports have to keep pace with technological developments and thus there are great pressures to expand their facilities. In addition, links with hinterland markets have to be improved and extended. The paper demonstrates that these pressures are being felt throughout the port system, and through a series of individual and regional examples the dynamism of the European port system is exposed.
[23]Song Dong-Wook.Regional container port competition and co-operation: The case of Hong Kong and South China
. Journal of Transport Geography, 2002, 10(2): 99-110.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0966-6923(02)00003-0URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
As the entrep么t to the Chinese mainland, the economy of Hong Kong has enjoyed a high growth rate of economic development. When Hong Kong developed its container ports in order to accommodate the regional economic boom, its counterparts in China were left far behind; there was no serious port competition from China. However, as China develops its economy, the port of Hong Kong faces real challenges from Chinese ports, particularly from southern ones. Interestingly, the handover of its sovereignty to China in 1997 caused an issue of competition and co-operation between these ports. This paper aims to examine the possible competition and co-operation of the adjacent container ports in Hong Kong and South China from a strategic perspective.
[24]Ducruet C, Notteboom T E, De Langen P.Revisiting inter-port relationships under the New Economic Geography research framework
. In: Notteboom T E, Ducruet C, De Langen P W. Ports in Proximity: Competition and Coordination among Adjacent Seaports. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2009: 11-28.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2009.08.022URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
We explored the utility of incorporating easily measured, biologically realistic movement rules into simple models of dispersal. We depart from traditional random walk models by designing an individual-based simulation model where we decompose animal movement into three separate processes: emigration, between-patch movement, and immigration behaviour. These processes were quantified using experiments on the omnivorous insect moving through a tomato greenhouse. We compare the predictions of the individual-based model, along with a series of biased random walk models, against an independent experimental release of . We find that in this system, the short-term dispersal of these insects is described well by our individual-based model, but can also be described by a 2D grid-based biased random walk model when mortality is accounted for.
[25]Airriess C.The regionalization of Hutchison port holding in mainland china
. Journal of Transport Geography, 2001, 9: 267-278.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0966-6923(01)00020-5URL [本文引用: 2]摘要
Hong Kong-based Hutchison Port Holdings has been successful in capturing Mainland China's container port joint venture market share. After examining a handful of push and pull factors influencing the firm's regionalization drive, this research describes the firm's regional spatial strategies. In addition to traditional economic factors, Hutchison Port Holdings' market share dominance is explained by socio-cultural and political factors within the context of Mainland China's economic articulation with the global economy, and the institutional medium of a territorially defined “time-space governance” embedded within the political economy of pre- and post-1997 Hong Kong. The firm's superior joint venture bargaining position within this governance system is illustrated by its busiest joint venture ports of Shanghai and Yantian.
[26]Tongzon J.Port choice determinants in a competitive environment. In: IAME Panama 2002 Conference, 2002: 1-22. [本文引用: 1]
[27]王缉宪. 从物流角度分析珠江三角洲集装箱港口的竞争和货主的选择
. 见: 中山大学港澳珠江三角洲研究中心、香港大学香港珠江三角洲发展专责委员会. 提升珠江三角洲竞争力: 社会、经济与基础设施发展研讨会论文集. 广州:中山大学港澳珠江三角洲研究中心, 香港: 香港大学香港珠江三角洲发展专责委员会, 2002: 13.
URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
反思2002年在珠江三角洲所做的一项调查结果,本文提出关于珠江三角洲港口竞争和货主选择机制研究的新思路。全球经济一体化至今一个极为重要的趋势是买方导向发展生产。也就是说,从传统的"产运销"变为今天的"销运产"的逆向决策过程。对于以出口为主的珠江三角洲,这意味着在港口、班轮、运输公司和运输线路等的选择上,买方、运方和物流公司可能比生产方有更大的决定权。为此,本文分析了国际集装箱货物贸易的实际方式对买方的种种差异,并指出:①在国际贸易中,"货主"成了一个动态的概念;②班轮公司和港口通过收费机制造成对买方选择的干预的事实;③第三方物流公司可能参与港口选择的方式。这些分析为进一步实地调查研究全程出口物流中港口选择的过程打下基础。
[Wang Jixian.Container port competition and the choice of shippers in the Pearl River Delta: An analysis from the perspective of logistics. Enhance the competitiveness of the Pearl River Delta: The Proceedings of the Symposium on the Development of Society, Economy and Infrastructure. Guangzhou: The Center for Studies of Hong Kong, Macao and Pearl River Delta Key Research Institute of Humanities and Social Sciences in Sun Yet-Sen University, Hong Kong: Specialized Committee on Development of Hong Kong and Pearl River Delta in The University of Hong Kong, 2002: 13.]URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
反思2002年在珠江三角洲所做的一项调查结果,本文提出关于珠江三角洲港口竞争和货主选择机制研究的新思路。全球经济一体化至今一个极为重要的趋势是买方导向发展生产。也就是说,从传统的"产运销"变为今天的"销运产"的逆向决策过程。对于以出口为主的珠江三角洲,这意味着在港口、班轮、运输公司和运输线路等的选择上,买方、运方和物流公司可能比生产方有更大的决定权。为此,本文分析了国际集装箱货物贸易的实际方式对买方的种种差异,并指出:①在国际贸易中,"货主"成了一个动态的概念;②班轮公司和港口通过收费机制造成对买方选择的干预的事实;③第三方物流公司可能参与港口选择的方式。这些分析为进一步实地调查研究全程出口物流中港口选择的过程打下基础。
[28]Cullinane K.The container shipping industry and the impact of China's accession to the WTO
. Research in Transportation Economics, 2005, 12(1): 221-245.
[本文引用: 2]
[29]Olivier D, Brian S B.Rethinking the port
. Environment and Planning A, 2006, 38(8): 1409-1427.
[本文引用: 2]
[30]Notteboom T E, Ducruet C, Langen P D.Ports in proximity-competition and coordination among adjacent seaports
. Ashgate, 2009, 18(3): 55-74.
https://doi.org/10.9774/GLEAF.978-1-909493-38-4_2URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
The time for clinicians to use dermoscopy in evaluating and managing cutaneous malignancies is fast approaching. Currently, many dermatologists are using dermoscopy ( Noor et al., 2009 ; Terushkin et al., 2010 ; Venugopal et al., 2011 ) and questions pertaining to dermoscopy have become part of the final qualifying examinations for many dermatologists. There is also a mounting interest being expressed by general practice (GP) physicians (i.e, family physicians), subspecialty physicians, nurse practitioners, and physician’s assistants in learning dermoscopy. The added benefit of dermoscopy has been documented for dermatologists, GPs, and even medical students. In other words, the use of dermoscopy has begun to diffuse beyond the hands of dermatologists. Dermoscopy has even become part of the clinical practice guidelines in some countries. In the publication “Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Management of Melanoma in Australia and New Zealand,” the training and utilization of dermoscopy is recommended for clinicians routinely examining pigmented skin lesions. These guidelines are evidence-based best practice guidelines with grade A evidence, which means that the body of evidence can be trusted to guide practice.
[31]Theys C, Notteboom T E, Pallis A A, et al.The economics behind the awarding of terminals in seaports: Towards a research agenda
. Research in Transportation Economics, 2010, 27(1): 36-50.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.retrec.2009.12.006URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
Terminal concessions in seaports have only recently gained interest in academic circles. Issues such as the allocation mechanisms (to be) used for granting those concessions, the determination of the concession term and concession fees, as well as the inclusion of special clauses aimed at assuring that the terminal operator will act in the interest of the port authority and the wider community, are increasingly relevant to both academics and the port industry. So far, insights from established economic theories have rarely been applied to terminal concessions in seaports. It, therefore, remains to be seen which kind of awarding procedure would be best for which type of terminal concession. This contribution provides a detailed overview of the different phases of the terminal awarding process, including a classification scheme for awarding procedures, and contains an extensive discussion on the economic issues that require further investigation. The paper concludes by proposing a comprehensive research agenda on the topic.
[32]Slack B, Frémont A.Transformation of port terminal operations: From the local to the global
. Transport Reviews, 2005, 25(1): 117-130.
https://doi.org/10.1080/0144164042000206051URL [本文引用: 4]摘要
The bases for the internationalization of the port terminal industry are explored. While the industry is being transformed by the penetration of transnational companies, there are important regional differences between Europe and North America. In Europe, the lead actors are companies that have arisen out of the industry itself, whereas in North America, most of the new actors are shipping lines. The consequences of this differentiation are substantial, since they represent fundamentally different types of organization, one being a product of horizontal integration based on multi-user berth operations, the other being an outcome of vertical integration and oriented towards dedicated berth use. The dissimilarities are explained in terms of governance, competition and capacity. Intraregional differences are also examined through the case of France, where an unwillingness to open French ports to global operators has affected the performance of those ports. The paper concludes by discussing some of the implications of the findings, including the issue of monopoly control of ports and the potential for conflict between the two models of contemporary cargo handling.
[33]Drewry Shipping Consultants.Annual Review of Global Container Terminal Operators
. London: The Maritime Executive, 2006.
[本文引用: 1]
[34]Rodrigue J P, Notteboom T E, Pallis A A.The financialization of the port and terminal industry: Revisiting risk and embeddedness
. Maritime Policy & Management, 2011, 38(2): 191-213.
https://doi.org/10.1080/03088839.2011.556675URLMagsci [本文引用: 2]摘要
The paper explores the evolving relationship between the port and terminal industry and the financial sector. Since the financial industry has taken an active role in global economic affairs, understanding global trade and transportation requires more than ever a perspective about financial issues and their impacts on transport operations. Paradoxically, the recent analytical emphasis on the strategies of port operators has rarely focused on one of the fastest and most radical changes ever to affect the maritime and port industries. The paper argues that through the lenses of financial issues-financialization-a unique dimension of the maritime industry can be understood. It analyses how a changing pattern in risk perception has supported a bubble in the period 2002 to 2008 and how financial interests in the industry have repositioned themselves since the start of the economic crisis in 2008. The analysis demonstrates how since then, the financial sector is-reluctantly-rediscovering the risks that are part of the maritime industry, notably those related to business cycles.
[35]Rodrigue J P, Notteboom T E.Foreland-based regionalization: Integrating intermediate hubs with port hinterland
. Research in Transportation Economics, 2010, 27(1): 19-29.
[本文引用: 1]
[36]Olivier D.Private entry and emerging partnerships in the container terminal industry: Evidence from Asia
. Maritime Economics and Logistics, 2005, 7(2): 87-115.
[本文引用: 1]
[37]Franc P, Horst M V.Understanding hinterland service integration by shipping lines and terminal operators: A theoretical and empirical analysis
. Journal of Transport Geography, 2010, (18): 557-566.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2010.03.004URLMagsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
<h2 class="secHeading" id="section_abstract">Abstract</h2><p id="">In the present competitive environment of ports, the key determinant in port competition is the ability of a port to be integrated into the local maritime and hinterland transportation chain. Creating effective integrated hinterland chains requires the coordination of several actors both in port and the hinterland. By making use of insights from Transaction Cost Economics and Resource-based View, the paper helps to understand why and how shipping lines and terminal operating companies enlarge their scope in intermodal transport and in inland terminals. The paper discusses a number of cases from the Hamburg&ndash;Le Havre range, where shipping lines and terminal operating companies have changed their scope of activities in ports and hinterland networks. After the theoretical and empirical analysis the papers draws conclusions on the explanatory power of the theories in understanding hinterland service integration by shipping lines and terminal operators.</p>
[38]Parola F, Musso E.Market structures and competitive strategies: The carrier-stevedore arm-wrestling in northern European ports
. Maritime Policy and Management, 2007, 34(3): 259-278.
https://doi.org/10.1080/03088830701343369URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
Over the last few years, liner and stevedoring markets have been facing new challenges. The progressive concentration on the demand side (carriers) and the emergence of global alliances in the mid-1990s have triggered a similar process of consolidation on the supply side (stevedores). In turn, more recently, the strategic choices of pure terminal operators have led to the progressive involvement of carriers in port operations, both from a financial and a managerial point of view. This paper aims at analysing the current contest in northern Europe between customers and suppliers of port services. Substantial concentration in the stevedoring market and the emergence of dedicated facilities in that area, make this arm-wrestling stronger and stronger. At present, the liner market is following a number of strategic directions including the pursuit of economies of scale (larger vessels) and the supply of services using faster vessels (deployment of 'fewer' assets) in order to offer either new services or additional loops (scope). By exploring the strategic behaviours of the top carriers ('bigger' or 'more effective'), the paper attempts to outline the future evolution of the two industries in a 2015 vision, highlighting in particular scenarios for north European ports. Global alliances are weakening and a new era of M&As is probably approaching: how will the bargaining power change between port users and port customers? Which competitive paradigm will dominate?
[39]Bichou K, Bell M.Internationalisation and consolidation of the container port industry: Assessment of channel structure and relationships
. Maritime Economics and Logistics, 2007, 9(1): 35-51.
https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.mel.9100170URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
The international consolidation of the container port industry is a relatively recent, yet radical trend in international shipping and logistics. Global strategies of vertical and horizontal integration evolving around port ownership and operations are undertaken by a variety of market players, both within and outside the international shipping and logistics markets. However, while much of the available literature on the subject has focused on the bases and various motives behind the change, little work has addressed the impacts on channel structure and relationships, including such aspects as control, power and conflict. By channel, we refer to an organised network of institutions that form the combined physical and non-physical path taken by goods and services as they move from original supplier to final consumer. However, in the context of this paper, the scope of the distribution channel is reduced to active members of the international shipping and logistics industry, that is, shippers, ocean carriers, ports, agents and intermediaries. This paper investigates the extent of channel power, conflict, role, performance and strategic concentration of shipping lines as international container terminal operators. A structural equations model is used to assess the impacts of global factors and consolidation on the container port industry, and test whether the direction of change would result in an increasing or decreasing risk of commoditisation and footloose mobility.Maritime Economics & Logistics (2007) 9, 35-51. doi:10.1057/palgrave.mel.9100170
[40]Notteboom T E, Rodrigue J P.The corporate geography of global container terminal operators
. Maritime policy and management, 2012, 39(3): 249-279.
https://doi.org/10.1080/03088839.2012.671970URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
The terminal and stevedoring industry has expanded substantially in recent years with the emergence of global container terminal operators controlling large multinational portfolios of terminal assets. This paper deals with the emerging corporate geography in the container terminal industry with issues related to the similarities or differences among terminal locations, the processes leading to the expansion of these holdings and the interactions they maintain as nodes within the global freight distribution system. It will be demonstrated that terminal operators show varying degrees of involvement in the main cargo handling markets around the world and that business cycles and a changing world economic geography can alter the geographical orientation of operators investment strategies. We unravel the corporate geography of leading firms such as Hutchison Port Holdings, Port of Singapore Authority, DP World, and APM Terminals, but also operators that are more regionally focused, such as Ports America, Eurogate, SSA Marine, and ICTSI.
[41]王成金. M集装箱港口网络形成演化与发展机制M. 北京: 科学出版社, 2012. [本文引用: 1]

[Wang Chengjin.The Evolution and Development Mechanisms of Container Ports Network. Beijing: Science Press, 2012.] [本文引用: 1]
[42]Robinson R.Asia hub/feeder nets: The dynamics of restructuring
. Maritime Policy and Management, 1998, 25(1): 21-40.
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