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人类世可持续发展背景下的远程耦合框架及其应用

本站小编 Free考研考试/2021-12-29

孙晶,1, 刘建国2, 杨新军3, 赵福强4, 覃驭楚5, 姚莹莹6, 王放7, 伦飞8, 王洁晶9, 秦波9, 刘涛10, 张丛林11, 黄宝荣11, 程叶青12, 石金莲13, 张劲松14, 唐华俊1, 杨鹏1, 吴文斌,11. 中国农业科学院农业资源与农业区划研究所,北京 100081
2. 密歇根州立大学系统整合与可持续发展中心,美国 东兰辛 48823
3. 西北大学城市与环境学院经济地理与规划系,西安 710127
4. 中国科学院沈阳应用生态研究所,沈阳 110016
5. 中国科学院空天信息创新研究院 遥感科学国家重点实验室,北京 100094
6. 西安交通大学人居环境与建筑工程学院地球环境科学系,西安 710054
7. 复旦大学生命科学学院,上海 200433
8. 中国农业大学土地科学与技术学院土地资源管理系,北京 100193
9. 中国人民大学公共管理学院城市规划与管理系,北京 100872
10. 北京大学城市与环境学院城市与区域规划系,北京 100871
11. 中国科学院科技战略咨询研究院,北京 100090
12. 海南师范大学地理与环境科学学院,海口 571158
13. 北京工商大学国际经管学院国际旅游管理系,北京 102488
14. 中国林业科学研究院林业研究所,北京 100091

Sustainability in the Anthropocene: Telecoupling framework and its applicationss

SUN Jing,1, LIU Jianguo2, YANG Xinjun3, ZHAO Fuqiang4, QIN Yuchu5, YAO Yingying6, WANG Fang7, LUN Fei8, WANG Jiejing9, QIN Bo9, LIU Tao10, ZHANG Conglin11, HUANG Baorong11, CHENG Yeqing12, SHI Jinlian13, ZHANG Jinsong14, TANG Huajun1, YANG Peng1, WU Wenbin,11. Institute of Agricultural Resources and Regional Planning, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
2. Center for Systems Integration and Sustainability, Michigan State University, East Lansing 48823, USA
3. Department of Economic Geography and Planning, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an 710127, China
4. Institute of Applied Ecology, CAS, Shenyang 110016, China
5. State Key Lab of Remote Sensing Sciences, Aerospace Information Research Institute, CAS, Beijing 100094, China
6. Department of Environmental Science, School of Human Settlements and Civil Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710054, China
7. School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
8. Department of Land Resource Management, College of Land Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
9. Department of Uran Planning and Management, School of Public Administration and Policy, Renmin University, Beijing 100872, China
10. Department of Urban and Regional Planning, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
11. Institutes of Science and Development, CAS, Beijing 100090, China
12. College of Geography and Environmental Sciences, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China
13. Department of International Tourism Management, School of International Economics Management, Beijing Technology and Business University, Beijing 102488, China
14. Research Institute of Forestry, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing 100091, China

通讯作者: 吴文斌(1976-), 男, 湖北潜江人, 博士, 研究员, 主要从事耕地复种、智慧农业及农业可持续等方面的研究。E-mail: wuwenbin@caas.cn

收稿日期:2019-10-27修回日期:2020-07-10网络出版日期:2020-11-25
基金资助:国家自然科学基金项目.41871356
美国科学基金项目.1924111


Received:2019-10-27Revised:2020-07-10Online:2020-11-25
Fund supported: National Natural Science Foundation of China.41871356
US National Science Foundation.1924111

作者简介 About authors
孙晶(1982-), 男, 天津人, 博士, 研究员, 主要从事人地系统耦合、环境可持续等方面的研究。E-mail: sunjing@caas.cn





















摘要
在全球一体化进程不断加深的背景下,国家与地区之间的联系日益紧密,产生了一系列跨国家、跨地区、多尺度的社会—经济—环境影响,远程耦合(Telecoupling,社会、经济、环境的远距离相互作用)科学概念和综合框架的提出为解决上述问题提供了新方法和新途径。为更好促进远程耦合综合框架的正确使用和规范推广,本文系统解析了远程耦合综合框架,厘清各组成部分的定义和功能,梳理了框架的应用现状;通过对3个中国典型案例的阐释,展示了远程耦合综合框架的使用方法、结果分析及由此得出的科学意义和政策价值;最后描述了远程耦合综合框架使用中需要重点关注的问题,并对其应用前景进行了展望。远程耦合综合框架的推广应用有助于以跨国家、跨地区、多尺度的视角,重新审视多个人类与自然耦合系统的相互作用,揭示隐藏的远距离地理空间作用的科学价值,服务于有关政策的制定和实施,促进全球社会、经济、环境的可持续发展。
关键词: 远程耦合;人类与自然耦合系统;调水;粮食贸易;自然保护区;系统反馈

Abstract
With increasing global integration, distant coupled human and natural systems have more interactions than ever before, which often lead to unexpected outcomes with profound implications for sustainability. The integrated framework of telecoupling (socioeconomic and environmental interactions over distances) has been proposed to address such cross-border and cross-scale challenges, helping better evaluate and understand telecouplings. We first provide an introduction to the telecoupling framework, including components, definitions, and functions, and then offer an overview of the growing number of telecoupling studies. Particularly, we use three Chinese cases to illustrate the methods, results, significance, and implications of applying the telecoupling framework. We also point out some research gaps and critical unsolved questions in the applications. The telecoupling framework provides a powerful tool to incorporate feedbacks, trade-offs, and synergies across multiple coupled human and natural systems, and helps improve the understanding of distant interactions and the effectiveness of policies for socioeconomic and environmental sustainability across local to global levels.
Keywords:telecoupling;coupled human and natural systems;water transfer;food trade;natural conservation area;system feedbacks


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本文引用格式
孙晶, 刘建国, 杨新军, 赵福强, 覃驭楚, 姚莹莹, 王放, 伦飞, 王洁晶, 秦波, 刘涛, 张丛林, 黄宝荣, 程叶青, 石金莲, 张劲松, 唐华俊, 杨鹏, 吴文斌. 人类世可持续发展背景下的远程耦合框架及其应用. 地理学报[J], 2020, 75(11): 2408-2416 doi:10.11821/dlxb202011010
SUN Jing, LIU Jianguo, YANG Xinjun, ZHAO Fuqiang, QIN Yuchu, YAO Yingying, WANG Fang, LUN Fei, WANG Jiejing, QIN Bo, LIU Tao, ZHANG Conglin, HUANG Baorong, CHENG Yeqing, SHI Jinlian, ZHANG Jinsong, TANG Huajun, YANG Peng, WU Wenbin. Sustainability in the Anthropocene: Telecoupling framework and its applicationss. Acta Geographica Sinice[J], 2020, 75(11): 2408-2416 doi:10.11821/dlxb202011010


1 引言

地理学是研究陆地表层自然和人文要素时空变化规律的学科[1],其研究的核心问题包括:空间格局—地理要素的空间分布规律;时间过程—地理要素随时间的变化;驱动机制—地理要素变化的动力关系[2]。自学科门类诞生以来,地理学始终在适应环境演替和时代更迭中不断继承创新,3个核心问题的具体内涵、思维、目标、任务和方法等不断丰富发展,进而衍生出一些新的研究领域和方向。如空间格局研究从传统的静态格局向动态过程转变,从要素格局向系统格局转变;时间过程从早期的单向作用过程向双向反馈过程转变,从单一时间尺度向多时间尺度的滞后性或遗迹效应转变;驱动机制从环境因素为主向环境—社会—政策等多因素转变,从单一尺度、层次向多尺度多层次的驱动机制转变[3,4]。可见,地理学所面临的新环境、新任务和新需求驱动或催生地理学出现新思想、新方向和新方法。

进入21世纪的20年来,人类社会经历了虚拟现实、人工智能、量子信息等重大技术变革,极大促进了全球互联互通,经济全球化、社会信息化深入发展;但与此同时,气候变化、环境污染、疾病传播等全球性问题不断蔓延或恶化,严重威胁包括人类在内所有生物的生存,地球进入到了由人类活动驱动的世代—人类世(Anthropocene)[5,6,7]。面对人类世,如何加强全球治理,实现全球一体化协调发展和共生共赢,有效解决2030年联合国可持续发展议程中的重大议题,成为全人类面临的共同挑战。

地理学中的人地系统耦合研究被认为是实现可持续发展、破解生态文明建设面临的资源与环境问题的重要路径之一[8,9,10]。人地耦合系统是由水、土、气、生、人多要素相互作用形成的复杂系统,传统的局地、单向、单一尺度“人—地关系”研究适用于理论原型分析和相对简单的系统演化[11,12],而人类世新近出现的诸多地理现象也超越了距离衰减律的解释范围。如南亚热带雨林的大范围砍伐很大程度是欧美发达国家对原木和家具的大量需求导致的[13];又如我国“一带一路倡议”、南水北调、西气东输等重大计划或工程实施必将带来一系列跨国、跨省、多时空尺度的社会、经济、环境效应。这些新情势和新变化需要地理学加强多地、双向、跨时空尺度的“人—地关系”综合研究。为应对这些新近出现的诸多挑战,刘建国于2008年提出“远程耦合”(Telecoupling,社会、经济、环境的远距离相互作用)的科学概念,并与其他科学家于2013年构建了“远程耦合”综合研究框架,用于多个人类与自然耦合系统的多时空尺度的全方位研究和解释[14]

远程耦合概念及其框架自提出以来,迅速在国际上得到了广泛认可和应用,尤其是在全球可持续性的研究领域成果丰硕。但是,目前有关远程耦合的科学概念、组成部分及应用状况等仍不明晰,在一定程度上不利于应对新时期社会、经济、环境等领域的诸多挑战。为此,本文从远程耦合的整体框架及应用概况、中国应用典型案例、需要重点关注的问题这3个主要方面着手,尝试系统地解释远程耦合综合框架,尤其关注该框架的使用方法,并强调科学价值和政策意义。作为方法论,远程耦合的相关研究正经历着从框架提出到案例积累的迅速增长阶段,应用前景广泛。正确掌握和使用远程耦合综合框架将为包括地理学在内的诸多学科提供更全面的科研视角和实践工具,将极大地促进中国和世界可持续性研究的长远发展。

2 远程耦合总体框架及应用

2.1 远程耦合总体框架

远程耦合是耦合系统的自然逻辑延伸(图1),包含了一系列相互关联的距离遥远的人类与自然耦合系统:每个耦合系统内是由代理、原因、影响3个部分组成;耦合系统之间是由流来连接的;根据流的方向耦合系统,可以分为发送系统、接收系统、外溢系统(具体解释如表1所示)。

图1

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图1远程耦合框架示意图(参考文献[14]修改)

Fig. 1Sketch of the telecoupling framework



Tab. 1
表1
表1远程耦合框架组成部分及解释
Tab. 1Components of the telecoupling framework
远程耦合组成部分解释
代理(Agent)个人、家庭、团体、企业、政府等利益相关者,促使或者阻碍耦合系统之间的流
原因(Cause)使得至少两个耦合系统通过流产生远程耦合的条件
影响(Effect)通过流产生的使得一个或多个耦合系统发生的变化
流(Flow)流动的物质、信息、能量,可以是单向或者双向的,使远程耦合的产生成为可能
发送系统(Sending system)输出流的系统
接收系统(Receiving system)输入流的系统
外溢系统(Spillover system)影响并受影响于发送系统与接收系统相互作用的系统

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远程耦合具备一般人类与自然耦合系统的复杂属性(例如:恢复力、时间滞后、非线性、异质性等)[10, 15],还有其自身鲜明的特点。首先,远程耦合不是多个人类与自然耦合系统的简单相加,该框架有机整合了发送系统、接收系统、外溢系统,实现了不同地点多个耦合系统、特定地点单个耦合系统不同尺度之间、不同地点多个耦合系统不同尺度之间的关联研究。其次,远程耦合框架强调反馈作用,包括耦合系统内的反馈:大尺度上的系统动态驱动小尺度上的系统变化,小尺度上的系统动态通过尺度推演反馈到大尺度的系统变化,反之亦然;耦合系统间的反馈:发送系统和接收系统之间的关联变化会改变外溢系统与发送系统和接收系统之间的关联,并影响外溢系统,同时外溢系统的变化通过反馈也会影响发送系统和接收系统。远程耦合明确内化了外部性的研究,当发送系统的动态导致接收系统显著变化时,将发送系统通过流对接收系统的影响作为主要驱动因子纳入到接收系统的研究中,反之亦然。

2.2 远程耦合框架的应用

远程耦合综合框架相关研究逐年递增。在“Web of Science”和中国知网(CNKI)搜索关键词“telecoupling”“telecoupled”和“远程耦合”,并去掉结果中(硕、博)学位论文、学术报告、会议论文集、专著,选取同行评议且使用远程耦合为主要研究框架的学术论文。自2013年远程耦合提出截至2020年10月1日,使用该框架的相关文章共计145篇,数量逐年递增(图2)。

图2

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图2使用远程耦合框架的文章数量

注:*数据截至2020年10月1日。
Fig. 2Number of papers that used the telecoupling framework



远程耦合框架的应用研究遍布全球,内容涉及多个领域,包括粮食贸易[16,17]、土地利用/覆被变化[18,19,20]、远距离调水[21,22]、旅游[23,24]、物种迁移[25,26,27]、城市化[28,29]、能源管理[30,31]。然而,远程耦合框架在实践中存在不当的理解和使用,例如,各构成系统(发送、接收、外溢)是否为耦合系统,发送系统是否直接导致接收系统发生显著变化(即内化的外部性是否为主要驱动因子),因此,远程耦合框架的规范化应用亟待加强。

3 远程耦合框架的规范化应用案例

远程耦合的应用案例已经遍及世界主要地区,本文选取3个具体案例进行剖析,阐述远程耦合框架的应用和结果及由此得出的科学意义和政策价值(表2)。这3个案例使用规范,研究类型包含定性分析和定量分析,且是中国的案例研究,便于对比学习。

Tab. 2
表2
表2远程耦合框架的中国应用案例分析
Tab. 2Applications of the telecoupling framework in China
案例研究类型研究内容简介
1定性
河北省密云水库流域“稻改旱”工程,增加入境水量,保障北京用水供给[33]
2定量
受大豆进口影响,黑龙江省发生以大豆种植减少为主的种植结构变化[16]
3定量
卧龙自然保护区,退耕还林生态补偿机制的反馈增加当地居民继续退耕的意愿[39]

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3.1 揭示尚未涉及的重要研究领域:密云水库流域“稻改旱”工程

背景:科研工作者们分析了密云水库“稻改旱”工程在上下游流域造成的社会、经济、环境影响,发现了“稻改旱”工程提升了密云水库的入库水量和水质,保证了北京供水,同时增加了河北省境内参与“稻改旱”工程农民的家庭收入,降低了北京用水处理成本,实现了两地社会、经济、环境的共赢[32]

应用:根据远程耦合框架,刘建国等定义河北省为水资源发送系统、北京市为接收系统;河北省入境密云水库的用水以及北京提供给河北省“稻改旱”工程参与者的生态补偿款项为流;参与“稻改旱”工程的农民以及北京市和河北省两地的政府是代理;密云水库水量和水质下降、北京市人口增长和经济发展导致的需水量增加、北京市与河北省的利益与冲突是原因;密云水库入境水量增加和水质改善、参与“稻改旱”工程农民的机会成本(利用一定资源获得某种收入时所放弃的另一种收入)、参与“稻改旱”工程北京市的成本(即提供给河北省的生态补偿钱款)、参与“稻改旱”工程农民的生计变化是影响。研究还定性指出尚未涉及的重要研究领域,包括:受“稻改旱”工程影响的其它地区,即外溢系统;北京市、河北省与其它地区的物质/能量/信息移动的流;外溢系统中的代理;导致远程耦合的原因还应包括由北京市家庭规模小型化导致的户数增加以及远距离调水技术的可行性;受益者(即北京市民)生计的变化、北京周边环境变化(地下水位、土地利用/覆被)、外溢系统社会、经济、环境的变化也是远程耦合的影响。

3.2 明晰隐藏问题:全球粮食贸易的环境效应评估

背景:随着人口的持续增长和贸易的快速发展,粮食贸易在保证粮食安全所起到的作用日益显著,对全球可持续发展产生重要影响。大量研究表明粮食进口将作物生产过程中对水体、土壤、空气的污染转移给出口国,得出“在粮食贸易中进口国(接收系统)是环境受益者,出口国(发送系统)是环境受害者”的结论[34,35,36]

应用:孙晶等应用远程耦合框架,对上述结论进行验证,假设在粮食贸易中进口国也可以是环境受害者,分析远程耦合下接收系统的环境动态[16]。选取国际大豆贸易作为研究对象,依据文献学习和在中国大豆主产区黑龙江的调查数据,分析大豆进口对包括中国在内的主要进口国的环境影响。进口大豆价格低廉,挤压进口国国内大豆生产,导致种植结构发生变化,大豆种植转为玉米、水稻、小麦、蔬菜等作物。孙晶等使用氮素平衡分析这一转化过程中农业污染的变化,结果显示全球范围内主要进口国由大豆进口导致国内种植结构变化的过程加剧了氮污染,在黑龙江的案例研究也同样支持上述结果,从而得出“进口国也可以是环境受害者”的科学结论,弥补“进口国是环境受益者”论断的不足。此项工作在全球尺度上具有重大的科学价值和政策意义,是远程耦合框架的定量研究,为全球可持续性的研究以及相关政策的制定提供重要参考依据,也为农业环境污染和生物多样性减少在全球谈判中提供数据支撑,明晰“责任追究,补偿分担”的原则,服务国际贸易谈判。

3.3 强调反馈作用:卧龙自然保护区退耕还林

背景:为了保护卧龙自然保护区内大熊猫和其他野生动物的栖息地,提升当地生物多样性,中央政府(发送系统)在卧龙自然保护区(接收系统)实行退耕还林工程,对于参与工程的农户由中央发放生态补助,在保障其生计的同时引导农户发展生态经济型后续产业,促进了生态环境和民生的同时改善[37,38]

应用:研究人员们发现卧龙自然保护区退耕还林工程的正反馈影响,即已经参与退耕还林工程的农民参与下一期退耕还林工程的意愿大幅提升[39]。具体地,退耕还林扩张了野生动物的栖息地,诸如野猪、黑熊、藏酉猴出没于与新近还林地区毗邻的农田啃食庄稼(高山玉米),造成作物产量大幅下降,同时受野生动物保护相关法律条文的限制,农民对这一干扰无能为力,所以对毗邻还林地区的农田表现出强烈的还林意愿。

实际上远程耦合的正反馈对于保护生态环境和提高农民生活质量是双赢的,退耕还林扩张了大熊猫等野生动物的栖息地,改善生态系统服务,提高当地水土保持能力,降低下游洪水风险,同时参与退耕还林工程的农民得到生态补偿钱款,通过发展林下经济、旅游业、外出务工等方式拓展了就业途径改善了生计。

4 远程耦合应用中需要重点关注的问题

首先,远程耦合框架及相关研究的推广使用需要统一专业术语,方便沟通协调学科内和跨学科交流,本文使用术语参见文献[14, 40]。例如:在远程耦合的相关术语中,人类与自然耦合系统(Coupled Human and Natural System, CHANS)[10],社会—生态系统[41],社会—经济—自然复合生态系统[42,43],三者意义相似,但前者往往具有更广泛的内涵,因此在今后的研究中可以采纳内涵较为广泛的人类与自然耦合系统。

其次,正确理解远程耦合的远程,准确定位研究对象。远程指代空间距离,可以是相对的远程,例如:“稻改旱”工程中的河北省供水区与北京市只有100 km左右,而中巴大豆贸易中北京到巴西利亚的距离17000 km。远程也可以指代环境、生态、机构、社会、制度、文化上的远程。例如:不同阶层、不同文化背景的人群,虽然文化上相去甚远,但是物理距离上可以很近,从而发生互动并产生一系列影响。

再者,外溢系统是远程耦合框架的组成部分,具有重要的科学内涵和政策价值,是可持续性研究的前沿领域,也是未来远程耦合应用的重要方向[44,45]。外溢系统的研究虽然与转移影响(Displacement)[13]、异地影响(Off-site Impacts)[46]、空间外部效应(Spatial Externality)[47]、渗漏影响(Leakage)[48]等相关研究具有相似性,但远程耦合框架下的外溢系统不是孤立的,它与发送系统、接收系统、原因、代理、影响都有明确规范的关联,可以更加全面准确地辨识外溢系统并评估其影响。例如:美国曾经是中国最大的大豆出口国,但是自2013年起这一位置由巴西取代,新兴的中巴大豆贸易挤压了传统的中美大豆贸易,根据远程耦合框架作为发送系统的美国被重新定义为外溢系统,这一转变及由此产生的影响是国际大豆贸易的潜在研究重点[17, 45]。在辨识、分析、理解外溢系统的基础上,应当整合不同学科、不同方法来管理外溢系统,制定有效的政策,减少负面影响,促进正面影响,实现远程耦合系统及组成部分的协调可持续发展。

第四,使用工具模型辨识、分析远程耦合的各个组成部分及其相互关系,是解决与之相关的社会、经济、环境问题的重要基础。目前已经有基于Web的远程耦合应用工具(Telecoupling Toolbox)发布,主要侧重远程耦合关系的可视化和初步的统计计算[49,50],其功能有待进一步完善。在分析远程耦合科学问题中常用的工具是全球贸易分析模型(Global Trade Analysis Project, GTAP),它常用于分析各国间的贸易活动[51],通过对每个国家的生产消费进行建模,量化各国贸易关系,分析与此相关的一系列问题,实现国际尺度上国家间远程耦合的研究。如GTAP模型数据库可追踪大豆生产、分配、贸易和消费过程中的温室气体排放,评估大豆贸易对全球气候变化的影响[52,53,54]。基于主体的模型(Agent-based Model, ABM)是用来模拟具有自主意识智能体(独立个体或共同群体,例如组织,团队)的行动和相互作用[55,56],可以分析地区尺度上受远程耦合影响的代理行为。例如:受到巴西大豆进口影响,中国大豆主产区黑龙江省大豆种植面积大幅减少,通过收集相关社会、经济、环境数据建立远程耦合ABM模型,模拟并预测政府和农民对进口大豆的应对行为及与此相关的社会、经济、环境影响。同时,开发整合模型来连接大尺度(如GTAP模型)与小尺度(如ABM模型)模型的数据和结果,实现跨国家、多尺度、多学科的分析是未来远程耦合模型工具开发的重点。整合模型可以分析地区尺度与国际国家尺度上人类与自然耦合系统的相互影响,获取对远程耦合影响全面系统的认知,将系统动态和情景分析进行整合归纳总结,服务相关政策的制定和实施。

最后,考虑到远程耦合综合框架的全面性与研究资源的可行性,在具体应用的时候可遵循化整为零的原则,在定量研究中每次着重解决一个主要问题。如本文3.2部分中的大豆贸易研究只针对远程耦合框架下接收系统的环境变化进行剖析,而不是力图在一篇文章中覆盖大豆贸易涉及的所有国家和所有元素。实际上,大豆贸易的具体研究也是遵循化整为零的原则,对巴西(发送系统)、中国(接收系统)、美国(外溢系统)的大豆生产、运输、贸易及由此产生的社会、经济、环境影响分别进行研究,最后再综合分析全球大豆贸易跨国家、多尺度的远程耦合影响。

5 结论

本文对远程耦合框架内涵、组成部分、应用、展望进行介绍,促进该框架的正确使用和规范推广。远程耦合框架具有强烈可操作性,辅助系统性思考,帮助使用者以新的角度重新审视人类与自然的相互作用,发现被长期忽视的具有重要科学价值和政策意义的问题或者证伪、补充被广泛认知和使用的常识。

远程耦合综合框架整合了跨国家、跨地区、多尺度的人类与自然动态,通过定量分析检验推进了人类与自然耦合系统的相关理论,通过采用多尺度系统的分析方法,追踪对某国国内变化的跨国界相互作用,改变我们对远程耦合世界影响的理解。未来远程耦合研究的重点在于发现共性、分析原因、评估影响、揭示机理,从而实现对远程耦合系统的管理,实现全球的协调共赢,促进贸易和投资自由化和便利化。

远程耦合的研究方兴未艾,在以地理学“人—地关系”为代表的相关研究中将具有广阔的应用前景,对于中国解决和管理诸如“一带一路”倡议、南水北调、西气东输等项目工程实施中遇到的跨省、跨国、跨地区的重大问题将发挥无比巨大的作用;同时可以有效应对国际上新近泛起的单边主义挑战,维护各国利益和全球治理体制,从而引导全人类在远程耦合的世界中朝着更加开放、包容、普惠、平衡、共赢的方向发展,实现人类世的可持续发展。

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Despite broad interest in using payment for ecosystem services to promote changes in the use of natural capital, there are few expost assessments of impacts of payment for ecosystem services programs on ecosystem service provision, program cost, and changes in livelihoods resulting from program participation. In this paper, we evaluate the Paddy Land-to-Dry Land (PLDL) program in Beijing, China, and associated changes in service providers' livelihood activities. The PLDL is a land use conversion program that aims to protect water quality and quantity for the only surface water reservoir that serves Beijing, China's capital city with nearly 20 million residents. Our analysis integrates hydrologic data with household survey data and shows that the PLDL generates benefits of improved water quantity and quality that exceed the costs of reduced agricultural output. The PLDL has an overall benefit-cost ratio of 1.5, and both downstream beneficiaries and upstream providers gain from the program. Household data show that changes in livelihood activities may offset some of the desired effects of the program through increased expenditures on agricultural fertilizers. Overall, however, reductions in fertilizer leaching from land use change dominate so that the program still has a positive net impact on water quality. This program is a successful example of water users paying upstream landholders to improve water quantity and quality through land use change. Program evaluation also highlights the importance of considering behavioral changes by program participants.

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The globalisation of trade affects land use, food production and environments around the world. In principle, globalisation can maximise productivity and efficiency if competition prompts specialisation on the basis of productive capacity. In reality, however, such specialisation is often constrained by practical or political barriers, including those intended to ensure national or regional food security. These are likely to produce globally sub-optimal distributions of land uses. Both outcomes are subject to the responses of individual land managers to economic and environmental stimuli, and these responses are known to be variable and often (economically) irrational. We investigate the consequences of stylised food security policies and globalisation of agricultural markets on land use patterns under a variety of modelled forms of land manager behaviour, including variation in production levels, tenacity, land use intensity and multi-functionality. We find that a system entirely dedicated to regional food security is inferior to an entirely globalised system in terms of overall production levels, but that several forms of behaviour limit the difference between the two, and that variations in land use intensity and functionality can substantially increase the provision of food and other ecosystem services in both cases. We also find emergent behaviour that results in the abandonment of productive land, the slowing of rates of land use change and the fragmentation or, conversely, concentration of land uses following changes in demand levels.

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For decades, scholars have been trying to determine whether small or large groups are more likely to cooperate for collective action and successfully manage common-pool resources. Using data gathered from the Wolong Nature Reserve since 1995, we examined the effects of group size (i.e., number of households monitoring a single forest parcel) on both collective action (forest monitoring) and resource outcomes (changes in forest cover) while controlling for potential confounding factors. Our results demonstrate that group size has nonlinear effects on both collective action and resource outcomes, with intermediate group size contributing the most monitoring effort and leading to the biggest forest cover gain. We also show how opposing effects of group size directly and indirectly affect collective action and resource outcomes, leading to the overall nonlinear relationship. Our findings suggest why previous studies have observed differing and even contradictory group-size effects, and thus help guide further research and governance of the commons. The findings also suggest that it should be possible to improve collective action and resource outcomes by altering factors that lead to the nonlinear group-size effect, including punishing free riding, enhancing overall and within-group enforcement, improving social capital across groups and among group members, and allowing self-selection during the group formation process so members with good social relationships can form groups autonomously.

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A central challenge for sustainability is how to preserve forest ecosystems and the services that they provide us while enhancing food production. This challenge for developing countries confronts the force of economic globalization, which seeks cropland that is shrinking in availability and triggers deforestation. Four mechanisms-the displacement, rebound, cascade, and remittance effects-that are amplified by economic globalization accelerate land conversion. A few developing countries have managed a land use transition over the recent decades that simultaneously increased their forest cover and agricultural production. These countries have relied on various mixes of agricultural intensification, land use zoning, forest protection, increased reliance on imported food and wood products, the creation of off-farm jobs, foreign capital investments, and remittances. Sound policies and innovations can therefore reconcile forest preservation with food production. Globalization can be harnessed to increase land use efficiency rather than leading to uncontrolled land use expansion. To do so, land systems should be understood and modeled as open systems with large flows of goods, people, and capital that connect local land use with global-scale factors.

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