, 廖华, 詹智成, 刘兵, 王圣凯, 杨天宇北京师范大学地理科学学部,北京 100875
New research progress of eye tracking-based map cognition in cartography since 2008
DONGWeihua, LIAOHua, ZHANZhicheng, LIUBing, WANGShengkai, YANGTianyu通讯作者:
收稿日期:2018-11-9
修回日期:2019-01-14
网络出版日期:2019-03-25
版权声明:2019《地理学报》编辑部本文是开放获取期刊文献，在以下情况下可以自由使用：学术研究、学术交流、科研教学等，但不允许用于商业目的.
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1 引言
地图是对复杂地理空间信息的抽象化表达,自诞生之日起就成为了人们认识自然和社会现象的有效工具。20世纪40年代,美国认知心理学家Tolman开创性地使用现代实验方法研究了小鼠与人类在迷宫中的寻路能力,首次提出了“认知地图”（cognitive maps）的概念[1]。到20世纪60年代,Golledge将动物的空间认知研究推广到人类空间活动的认知研究中,奠定了地理空间认知研究的基础[2]。从20世纪90年代中期开始,地理空间认知在地理信息科学中得到了长足的发展[3]。作为地理空间认知的重要组成部分,地图认知研究的是人类对地图的感知、学习、记忆、推理与传输空间信息的过程和机理。1995年美国国家地理信息与分析中心（NCGIA）将地理空间认知模型研究列入地理信息科学的三大战略领域之一[4]。21世纪初,国际制图协会（ICA）就将认知与可用性问题作为本世纪地理信息可视化的4个研究主题之一[5,6]。地图认知理论与制图综合理论、地图信息传输理论、地图符号理论等成为现代地图学理论的基本内容[7,8,9,10]。眼动跟踪方法为地图认知研究提供了一条新的途径。俗话说“眼睛是心灵的窗户”,视觉是人类所有感官中能力最强的感官通道,眼睛的运动（即：眼动）反映了大脑的视觉信息处理过程[11]。文献表明,人类大脑多达40%的功能都用来处理视觉信息[12]。因此,使用精密仪器（眼动仪）记录眼球的运动并以此分析视觉认知规律和大脑信息处理过程就成为认知研究中最自然的研究手段。眼动跟踪方法从20世纪60年代开始应用于心理学、神经科学的研究中[13,14],此后,在70年代初被引入地图学与地理信息科学中。地图学眼动研究在经历了发展期（20世纪70年代-80年代末）和沉寂期（20世纪80年代末-20世纪末）之后重新受到****的重视,在过去的10多年中,国内外以眼动跟踪为手段的地图视觉认知研究在理论和应用上取得了一系列新的研究成果,地图学眼动研究焕发出新的活力。因此,本文试图总结2008年以来国内外的地图学眼动研究取得的新进展,并分析当前研究面临的挑战,期望能在地图视觉认知研究中起到抛砖引玉的作用。20世纪至21世纪初的相关研究不在本文的关注范围,读者可参阅文献[3, 15-16]。
2 眼动跟踪方法
地图学眼动研究属于实验研究或者用户研究,总体上可以分为两大类,并且这两类存在很大的不同[17]：（1）心理学驱动（psychology-driven）的眼动研究：根植于心理学,严格遵循实验心理学的研究流程和规范（典型的实验过程如图1所示）,核心在于控制变量,目的在于通过严格的控制实验和假设检验方法得到可归纳（generalizable）、可复制（reproducible）的实验结果,优点在于可以推导出因果关系,因此对于被试人数、实验条件、实验环境、实验流程等要求严格。缺点在于由于该类型研究为了使实验最大程度地可控以建立因果关系,在设计刺激材料时需要对地图进行大幅度地简化[18,19]（图2a~2c）,使得刺激材料与真实地图相去甚远（图2d）,因而导致其结果不一定能推广到真实地图之中[20]。
显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT图1眼动跟踪实验的典型过程
-->Fig. 1Typical procedure of eye tracking experiments
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显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT图2两种类别的眼动研究所用的刺激材料示例 (a. b. c. 心理学驱动[
-->Fig. 2Example stimuli of the two types of user studies in (a, b, c) psychology-driven studies [
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（2）可用性工程驱动（usability engineering, UE-driven）的眼动研究：源于可用性工程[22],核心在于评价地图产品的功能是否达到要求,常用的方法是评价地图的有效性（effectiveness）、效率（efficiency）和用户满意度（satisfactory）[23],目的在于发现地图设计中的问题,用来改进地图设计、寻求可迁移到其他类似情况下的地图设计原则,虽然实验流程与心理学驱动研究类似,但是对实验的控制程度较低。该类型的研究通常需要对完整的、真实的地图设计进行评价,以此来提高实验的生态效度（ecological validity）[24],缺点在于只能得到相关关系而非因果关系。
可以看出,眼动跟踪方法作为一个技术手段,既可以应用心理学驱动的方法来探求地图视觉认知规律,又可以应用可用性工程驱动的方法来评价地图设计。因此,眼动跟踪方法可以很好地与地图设计的各个阶段相结合。具体来说,通过眼动跟踪方法挖掘得到的视觉认知规律可以使用“以用户为中心”（user-centered design, UCD）的方法应用于地图设计,即通过：用户认知规律挖掘→地图原型设计→地图可用性评价→地图设计改进→地图再评价的迭代流程来设计满足用户需求、高可用性的地图。相比于传统地图设计流程中强调制图者的设计水平,UCD方法更强调让用户参与规律挖掘、需求分析和地图评价的过程,从而提高地图的可用性。
通过眼动实验收集到眼动数据以后,需要对原始眼动数据进行统计分析,检验不同组别（自变量的不同水平）之间的差异是否具有统计学意义,从而完成假设检验过程。自变量可以是不同时段（如训练前和训练后）[25]、不同用户群体（如专家和新手）[26]、不同地图类型（如二维地图和三维地图）[27]、不同的感兴趣区（AOI）（如图例的不同位置）[28]等,比较的内容是各类眼动指标。不同的眼动指标能够反映大脑视觉信息处理过程的不同特征,这是使用眼动跟踪方法研究地图视觉认知的基础。基本的眼动行为可以分为两类：一类是眼跳（saccade）,有的文献中也译作“扫视”,即眼球的快速移动（通常移动速度高达500°/s）;另一类是注视（fixation）,即眼跳之后保持相对静止（持续时间约200~300 ms）[29]。研究表明,人的视觉系统在眼跳的过程中受到抑制,因而几乎不处理视觉信息,视觉信息处理主要发生在注视的过程中[30]。因此,眼跳和注视两个基本特征能够分别表征视觉搜索和信息处理过程,再结合AOI,可以衍生出一系列的眼动指标用于统计分析。此外,大脑认知负担的变化会引起瞳孔大小的变化,因此,瞳孔大小的相关参数也常用于表征大脑认知负担的高低[31]。本文把常见的眼动指标按照其所反映的认知规律分成三大类,即基于注视点的信息处理指标、基于眼跳的视觉搜索指标、以及基于瞳孔大小的认知负担指标。表1分别列出了常见眼动指标及其认知意义[32,33,34,35,36]。
Tab. 1
表1
表1常见眼动指标及其认知意义
Tab. 1Common eye movement metrics and their cognitive meaning
| 类别 | 眼动指标 | 认知意义 |
|---|---|---|
| 信息处理指标 | 注视点数量 | 数量越多说明读者处理了越多(但不一定有用)的视觉信息。 |
| 总注视时长 | 越长表明读者花更长的时候解译信息、匹配用户界面和记忆。 | |
| 平均注视点持续时长 | 即平均单个注视点的持续时长,越长说明信息解译的难度更大(用户有具体任务时),或者说明该区域更具有吸引力、用户对它更感兴趣(用户无任务、自由观看时)。 | |
| 首次进入AOI前用时 | 首次到达感兴趣区(AOI)之前所花的时间,越短说明该区域更快地吸引视觉注意。 | |
| AOI内注视点比例 | AOI内注视点数量除以总注视点数量,用来度量读者对该AOI的关注程度,与此类似的还有AOI内注视时长比例。 | |
| 注视频率 | 即单位时间内注视点个数,注视频率越高说明信息处理效率越高。 | |
| 视觉搜索指标 | 眼跳次数 | 眼跳次数越多说明读者进行了越多的视觉搜索。 |
| 总眼跳长度 | 表征视觉搜索的广度,长度越长说明搜索范围越广。 | |
| 眼跳持续时间 | 眼跳持续时间越长,说明读者用于搜索的时间越多。 | |
| 眼跳频率 | 即单位时间内的眼跳次数,频率越高说明搜索效率越高。 | |
| 回视次数 | 回视表明对先前区域的认知补充或再加工。 | |
| 认知负担指标 | 平均瞳孔大小 | 用来表征全局的认知负担大小,越大说明实验任务的总体认知负担越重。 |
| 最大瞳孔大小 | 用来表征局部的认知负担大小,越大说明某些实验任务的认知负担越重。 |
新窗口打开
除了眼动指标之外,眼动实验根据任务设计的不同通常搭配其他指标进行辅助分析,如使用任务完成时间（反应时长）表征效率、被试答题的正确率表征有效性以及鼠标点击次数表征地图交互次数等[23]等。
将眼动数据可视化是辅助分析的常用方法[37]（图3）。比如,注视轨迹图和热点图能够直观地显示被试的注视点空间分布,为进一步的分析提供初步的、定性的证据。其它的可视化方法还包括：① 眼动轨迹综合：由于多个被试的眼动轨迹叠加容易造成视觉上的混乱,因此可以对眼动轨迹进行简化、综合,或者制作轨迹密度图,从而更清晰地表达眼动的整体分布规律[38];② 时空立方体（Space-Time-Cube, STC）分析法：Li等借鉴了H?gerstrand提出的时空立方体[39],将眼动数据用STC可视化并进行分析[40]。眼动数据可视化能方便地解决视觉注意“在哪里”和“多久”的问题,但更重要的是要解决“是什么”和“为什么”的问题。
显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT图3眼动数据可视化示例[
-->Fig. 3Illustration of visual analytics of eye movement data[
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3 国内外研究新进展
本文将2008年以来基于眼动跟踪的地图视觉认知研究取得的新进展总结为以下6个方面（6个变化趋势）。需要指出的是,这6个趋势主要是基于研究内容和研究思路两个角度来划分的,其中,研究内容从地图信息传输的3个要素即：环境、地图和人3个方面来总结,研究思路从当前研究的范围和目的两个方面来总结。3.1 刺激材料：从静态地图到动态交互地图
不同于一般的自然场景图像,地图是经过高度概括综合的图形模型。地图视觉变量是信息传输的载体,不同地图形状、符号和注记的有机组合形成了复杂各异的地图表达。系统化地研究自底向上（bottom-up）的地图视觉变量的认知机理是地图视觉认知一直关注的内容,相关的研究内容包括地图注记[20, 42]、图例[28]、颜色和字体[43]、源—目的地（origin-destination, OD）图[44]、地图感知复杂度[45]等。随着互联网的发展,网络地图得到了越来越广泛的应用,其动态性、交互性以及小屏幕的特点成为研究者关注的重点[46],动态交互环境下的地图视觉变量的认知规律是一个重要的切入点。认知科学的研究表明,不考虑读者主观因素的影响,不同的视觉变量对视觉注意的引导作用存在差异。比如,颜色、动画、方向和大小是最具引导性的视觉变量,其次是亮度、形状、立体景深等,语义分类、名称、三维体积等变量则可能不具有引导性[47]。与此类似,对地图视觉变量表达信息的有效性和效率的研究发现,在动态地图中,尺寸是最有效（正确率最高且速度最快）的视觉变量,而方向是最低效的视觉变量[48]。Dong等通过对比不同尺寸、颜色、播放频率和屏幕大小来呈现交通流数据的有效性和效率（图4）,发现这些视觉变量的表现与屏幕大小有关,例如,小屏幕上的最佳播放频率要比大屏幕上的快[49,50]。
显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT图4眼动跟踪应用于动态地图和交互地图[
-->Fig. 4Eye tracking studies for animated maps and interactive maps[
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地图设计与可用性评价研究是地图眼动研究中最多的一类,但是由于地图本身的复杂性,目前还没有一个通用的理论来解释地图要素对认知的影响。Fabrikant等试图将自底向上的因子和自顶向下（top-down）的因子统一起来并应用于地图设计的实践中[25]。其核心思想是：在给定任务下,读者会在任务的驱使下搜索与任务有关的视觉信息,与此同时地图不同元素的视觉显著性会吸引读者的视觉注意。因此,如果合理地使用各类地图视觉变量将与任务相关的信息设计得更加显著,而移除或者淡化不相关的信息,那么读者的视觉搜索与决策效率就会得到提高。该假设得到了Fabrikant等实验的证实。
动态和交互地图增加了眼动数据分析的难度。比如,当用户改变地图的比例尺时,刺激材料就会发生变化。为了解决这个问题,Ooms等通过记录用户在操作地图时的比例尺信息,从而将注视点的屏幕坐标换算为地理坐标解决了不同尺度下的注视点可比性的问题[51]。在此基础上,G?bel等将金字塔的栅格地图替换成矢量地图,从而可以进一步识别每一个注视点所对应的地图要素[52]。
3.2 研究范围：从地图认知到地图空间认知
近年来的地图学眼动研究越来越关注地图空间认知。由瑞士苏黎世联邦理工学院（ETH）Martin Raubal团队发起和组织的眼动空间认知会议从2013年开始至今已经举办了3届（ET4S: http://spatialeyetracking.org/et4s-2018/）。基于眼动的地图空间认知研究也吸引了来自心理学、计算机和人机交互等领域的****的参与[53]。本文区分“地图认知”和“地图空间认知”是因为两者既有重叠又有区别,研究的侧重点不同：地图认知研究侧重研究用户对抽象地图符号所表达的语义信息进行解读,即对地图本身不同形状、符号和注记及它们的有机组合的解读,研究对象主要为专题地图,比如研究如何通过阅读气象地图来判断风向[25];而地图空间认知则强调人们使用地图来认识在地理空间中“诸事物、现象的形态与分布、相互位置、依存关系以及变化和趋势的能力和过程”[4],其中涉及到的地图多为普通地图。地图空间认知侧重通过地图获取空间知识,并用来进行空间决策（如空间定位和定向）。地图空间认知的过程,是用户对真实世界、地图世界和认知世界3个空间的认知相结合和统一的过程。典型的地图空间认知任务是使用地图进行导航与寻路。地图的加入使得信息原本在寻路者与环境两者之间进行传递,变为在寻路者、环境和地图三者之间进行传递。这个过程涉及到地图符号识别、地标识别、地图与环境匹配、空间定位与定向、路线规划、以及心理旋转等一系列复杂的认知和行为过程[53,54,55],相关的研究也围绕这些认知过程展开。
3.3 实验环境：从实验室环境到真实环境
地图空间认知离不开真实环境,理想的情况是在真实环境中开展实验。但是由于真实环境的动态性和复杂性,在真实环境中开展眼动研究面临诸多挑战。比如,真实环境中的视觉刺激是不可控的、要将被试从一个环境换到另一个环境也不便利,并且会在转移的过程中使被试产生学习效应。此外,真实环境下的眼动数据质量容易受到太阳光照的影响[56]。以往的研究大多是在实验室环境下使用虚拟环境或虚拟现实来模型真实环 境[57,58,59,60]。与真实环境相比,虚拟环境灵活性高、易于管理和组织、更方便采集到高质量的眼动数据、可控程度高。但是虚拟环境也存在一些缺点,比如在虚拟环境中运动缺乏“本体感受”、较难维持良好的“态势感知”（situation awareness）、容易迷失方向等[61],因此,虚拟环境不能作为真实实验环境的代替品。通过将眼动追踪设备嵌入眼镜当中（如SMI ETG, Tobii Glasses）,使得眼动跟踪 可以脱离实验室环境的束缚能够在室外真实环境中进行（图5）,越来越受到研究者的关注[53, 56, 62-64],基于便携式眼动仪的穿戴计算拥有新的发展前景[65]。比如,Kiefer等使用头戴式眼动仪开展真实环境下的地图和环境匹配实验用来研究人的空间定位定向过程[66]。在该实验中,被试站在一个固定的位置,通过对比给定的地图与其所处的环境来判断自己在地图上的位置。结果表明,与判断错误的被试相比,判断正确的被试分配了更多的视觉注意到有用的地图符号上,并且他们在匹配这些符号和真实环境中的路标时,视觉注意在地图与真实环境之间的转换次数也更多。
显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT图5真实环境下的眼动跟踪实验场景
-->Fig. 5Eye tracking experiments in real environments
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需要注意的是,真实环境既可以是室外开阔环境（比如城市街道、公园等）,也可以是室内封闭环境（比如大楼、地铁站、商场等）,使用便携式眼动仪进行室内场景的空间认知研究也是近年来研究者关注的一个重要方向。比如,Ohm等使用SMI ETG收集被试在室内环境中寻路的眼动数据,通过对比被试使用不同的导航地图寻路的表现来评价不同细节程度的地图的优劣[67]。Wang等通过开展商场内的地图寻路实验分析不同年龄和性别的眼动差异[68]。
真实环境下的眼动研究面临的一个挑战是如何分析基于动态刺激材料的眼动数据。由于环境在不断发生变化,被试在环境中的动作也各不相同,因此不同被试的眼动数据不能直接对比[69]。传统的分析方法是手工对数据进行分析,比如逐帧查看眼动数据,然后将被试看到的物体记录下来进行分析[64]、创建动态AOI[27, 70]、手工将每一个注视点标定到参考图像上[71]。但是真实环境下实验采集得到的视频数据量非常大,手工对这些数据进行分析非常耗时,且可靠性很难保证。
一些研究者开始利用计算机视觉算法探索眼动数据的自动化分析方法。比如,Beugher等使用人脸检测和行人检测算法分析视频中被试对人的注视频率和时长[72]。Anagnostopoulos等提出了一种将注视点匹配到一张城市全景图上的算法,当全景图上的物体事先已知时,就能识别这个注视点的语义信息[73]。这个算法能够实现实时快速匹配,最高可以支持头部运动速度63o/s。Kiefer等在进行定位定向实验时,在被试的地图上放置若干个二维码,通过检测这些二维码来确定地图是否出现以及计算注视点在地图上的相对位置[66]。现有文献中对眼动数据自动化分析方法的研究或是只针对特定的目标（比如人脸）,或是要求被试站在固定的位置,还不能满足大数据量、自动化分析的需要。
3.4 地图维度：从二维地图到三维地图
传统的二维地图经过长期以来的发展在地图信息传输、地图视觉变量、地图概括与综合以及地图设计等方面已经比较成熟[74]。三维地图并非最近几年才出现在地图学和GIS中,但是三维地图的设计问题伴随着近年来计算机和移动设备计算能力和显示能力的快速提高而变得越来越突出。与二维地图相比,三维地图可以提供多一维的空间来展示信息、提供更接近人类熟悉的三维世界的视角,但也存在着符号遮挡、距离和深度信息难以判断等问题[75]。目前三维地图的很多实践都基于二维地图的设计方法,但是很显然地,三维地图不仅仅是在二维的基础上增加一个维度,还涉及到尺度、投影、三维视觉变量、地图抽象级别等诸多问题[76,77,78]。三维地图认知与设计是一个很大的话题,本文仅侧重探讨眼动跟踪方法在三维地图符号设计中的应用。近年来的地图学眼动研究开始关注三维地图的视觉认知问题,已有一些****对三维地图符号及其视觉参量进行了研究,包括视场角和观察角度[79]（图6a）、三维视觉变量的引导性和恒常性[80]、三维符号的抽象程度[81,82]等。Liao等对比了用户在使用真实感三维表达（Realistic 3D representation）和传统二维地图在寻路时的视觉差异,发现两者的优劣取决于用户的任务：传统二维地图更利于空间知识获取,这是由于真实感三维表达包含过多冗余信息,导致用户进行了大量冗余的视觉搜索;而三维表达则更利于复杂路口决策,这是因为真实感三维表达有助于路标识别,从而使用户在复杂路口时进行空间定位和定向的效率更高（图6b~6c）[60]。Lei等通过眼动实验发现与二维地图相比,使用三维地图时的平均单个注视点的注视时长更长,注视点更聚集、观察角度更小。作者推测这有可能是由于三维地图在细节上有更高的视觉复杂度引起的[83]。此后的研究表明,二、三维的混合表达可以使它们的优势互补,不管是三维符号和二维符号的混合（图6d~6e）[27],还是真实感和非真实感（Non-realistic）三维符号的混合[84],都更有利于空间记忆。
显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT图6眼动跟踪研究三维地图[
-->Fig. 6An eye tracking studies investigating 3D maps[
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3.5 个体差异：从单一维度到多维度
群体与个体差异是用户研究中普遍存在的问题,用户的不同年龄、性别、文化背景、读图能力、空间能力、专业和经验知识等会对用户的实验表现产生影响[85]。以往大量的研究关注专家和新手的差异（“专家—新手”范式）[86]以及性别差异[87,88]的影响。比如,在完成读图任务时,专家的速度更快、正确率更高、注视频率更高,意味着他们在同样的时间内进行了更多的信息处理,并且比新手更高效地定位搜索目标[26]。进一步地对两者的眼动序列进行对比分析可以发现,速度快的被试在解决问题时善于根据当前的任务来分配自己的视觉注意,因而当地图界面改变时他们能迅速调整搜索策略;而速度慢的被试回视次数更多,说明他们的解题策略依赖于地图的界面设计[89]。近年来基于眼动追踪对个体差异的研究已经从“专家—新手”差异和性别差异等单一维度扩展到了其他多个维度。比如高雪原等研究了场认知方式（场依存、场独立）、性别和惯用空间语（惯用东南西北、惯用前后左右、两者并存）对地理空间定向能力影响[21]。Dong等探讨了不同专业背景的被试在地图空间能力上的差异[90],结果发现在多情况下,地理学相关背景的被试在地图空间定位、空间定向和空间可视化方面比非地理学背景的被试反应时间更短、视觉搜索效率更高。
研究人员还进一步探索了使用定量模型方法来分析用户分类和个体差异,从而对用户的地图阅读能力和地图空间能力进行定量建模。比如,郑束蕾等使用聚类分析和判别分析对不同性别、年龄、教育水平、职业和收入的地图用户进行自动分类[91]。郑束蕾等还通过分析不同被试的眼动（行为）参数,揭示了地图的个性化认知特点并构建了以眼动指标为基础的个性化地图认知适合度评估模型,为个性化地图的设计提供理论和方法基础[92]。Dong等强调地理教育在提升个人地图空间认知能力中所发挥的重要作用[90, 93],提出了以地图空间认知能力为核心的“图商”的概念,并基于多种眼动指标建立贝叶斯结构方程模型来评价用户的地图空间认知能力,从而将个体差异的研究定量化、模型化,将群体差异研究细化到真正的“个体”差异研究[94]。
3.6 研究目的：从规律探究到实践应用
近年来地图学眼动研究方向的一个重要转变就是从以往的规律探究型研究转变为实践应用型研究。后者摒弃传统的心理学驱动型研究思路（即：实验假设→眼动实验→假设验证）,转而采用数据驱动和实践应用问题驱动的思路,解决眼动地图交互、眼动数据挖掘和用户行为预测等实际应用问题。（1）眼动地图交互。有别于传统的使用鼠标或者触摸的地图交互方式,研究者开始利用眼动跟踪开发出新的人机交互模式,并且集成基于位置的服务（LBS）,从而为用户提供更加个性化与智能化的地理信息服务[95]。比如,Giannopoulos等通过分析用户在使用手机地图时的对地图进行的缩放操作与眼动之间的关系,开发了一套称作“GeoGazemarks”的眼动交互原型系统,该系统能使用户在进行地图缩放操作时快速地找到原先注意过的地点,用以提高地图搜索和定位的效率[96]。类似地还有Kluge等提出了一个基于便携式眼动仪的行人导航系统原型,该系统通过增强现实环境提高行人导航效率[97]。Gkonos等将眼动与触觉相结合开发了“VibroGaze”的导航辅助系统,当用户在十字路口环顾四周决定前进方向时,用户佩戴的眼动仪实时监测用户注视的方向,当用户注视到正确的行进方向时,与系统联动的一个可以产生振动的腰带就会发生振动,提醒用户当前注视的方向是正确的[98]。这种新型的交互方式可以避免用户在定向时频繁地查看手机和环境。
（2）眼动数据挖掘。研究者将眼动数据作为富信息源进行数据挖掘,典型的应用是从眼动数据中识别导航地标[99,100,101]。比如,智梅霞通过分析地标的视觉显著度与眼动指标的相关性,构建了一个复合视觉因子的地标视觉显著性模型[102]。研究者还将眼动数据用于用户兴趣建模等[103]。
（3）用户行为预测。智慧地图服务的一个前提是识别和预测用户的行为、挖掘用户的行为模式[19, 63, 104],在此基础上进行信息推荐。传统的方法是用户通过交互显式地将自己的需求输入系统,而当前的研究主要使用机器学习和数据挖掘的方法从眼动数据中预测用户行为,属于隐式交互。比如,Kiefer等从用户阅读地图的眼动数据中提取了229个特征,使用支持向量机（SVM）对眼动特征进行学习,并以此预测用户的6种阅读行为,最高达到了77.7%的总体分类精度[105]。Liao等对真实环境中的行人导航场景中的眼动数据进行特征提取,基于随机森林分类器推断行人在导航期间的五种常见任务,最高达到67%的总体精度[106]。Krejtz等通过探测用户注视位置和周边信息进行信息推荐[107]。
4 未来研究挑战
基于眼动跟踪的地图视觉认知研究仍面临许多挑战,具体表现在以下6个方面,同时对应于6个发展趋势：（1）动态交互地图的视觉认知机理。动态交互地图的广泛应用使得探究其视觉认知机理（从而指导地图设计）成为未来研究面临的挑战之一。其多样性、动态性和交互性增加了实验控制和数据分析的难度,需要运用人机交互理论对地图交互的类别、特点和应用场景进行系统地分析,从而针对性地设计地图认知实验。在分析方法上,需要综合运用已有的数理统计、可视分析、以及GIS时间序列数据建模等方法,定性和定量地分析用户眼动和视觉认知的动态变化过程。
（2）地图空间认知规律的形式化表达与建模。这是未来地图视觉认知研究挑战之二,也是地图视觉认知研究从理论探讨走向实践应用的重要前提,需要在传统以理论驱动（自上而下）的研究思路的基础上,加入数据驱动（自下而上）的研究方法,针对多种空间认知场景（如行人导航场景、驾驶场景、室内场景和室外场景）、多种实验环境（如真实环境、桌面式虚拟环境、沉浸式虚拟环境）、多种认知模式（如主动认知与被动认知）以及多种用户任务（如地图视觉搜索、空间定位与定向、路线规划、路线记忆等）进行规律探究与建模。
（3）真实环境下的眼动数据自动处理方法。如前文所述,真实环境下的眼动实验产生大量视频和眼动数据,传统的手工方法已经不能满足研究的需要,如何对这些数据进行自动化处理是未来研究挑战之三,其难点在于确定注视点的语义信息。需要利用计算机视觉方法如图像匹配、语义分割等算法来进行注视点的自动语义识别。
（4）三维地图视觉变量的认知机理。目前三维地图在认知理论和设计实践上还没有普遍认同的原则,甚至对于三维地图的研究还有相互不一致的结论[108]。由于地图视觉变量是构成地图的基本要素,因此三维地图的认知研究可以从三维地图视觉变量的认知机理研究中寻找突破,这也是未来地图视觉认知研究的挑战之四。三维地图的视觉认知一方面需要放到三维信息可视化这个更广的领域去研究,另一方面需要针对它的不同应用场景和不同的用户任务进行讨论。
（5）地图视觉认知个体差异的定量度量。随着对用户多个维度细分研究的深入,各个维度之间的交互作用、它们对地图空间认知能力影响的强弱,以及如何对用户多个维度的个体差异进行定量度量是未来研究挑战之五,其难点在于用户的影响因素复杂且各个因素之间相互影响、用户的某些维度（如经验知识）难以度量。可能的解决方案包括使用因子分析和主成分分析等方法将用户多种特征进行降维,使用聚类分析、判别分析和结构方程模型等数据驱动的方法对用户眼动特征进行自下而上的建模。
（6）基于眼动跟踪的个性化和智能化地理信息服务。随着眼动追踪设备的进一步小型化、廉价化和追踪精度的提高,在便携设备中（如谷歌眼镜、手机、笔记本电脑和虚拟现实设备等）嵌入眼动仪在不远的将来可能成为一个普遍的功能,因此,实现基于眼动跟踪的个性化和智能化的地理信息服务是未来研究挑战之六,其难点在于用户行为的精准和实时预测。需要结合多源传感器信息如头动、GPS[109]、脑电EEG[110]等,利用机器学习和数据挖掘方法来开发实时高效的眼动数据挖掘算法,从而更加精准地预测用户行为、提高眼动交互系统的可用性。
5 总结与展望
地图学眼动与视觉认知研究的最终目的是探究用户的地图视觉认知机理,设计出能够有效引导用户视觉注意的地图来辅助视觉信息处理和用户行为决策,从而降低用户认知负担,促进用户对复杂地理环境和地图的认知过程,提高地理信息传输效率,实现高效、健壮的地图智慧服务。这是地图学认知理论的核心问题,也是当前认知科学与地理信息科学领域的研究热点和科学前沿[111]。总结2008年以来地图学眼动研究可以发现,眼动跟踪方法作为一种技术手段,已经受到来自各个领域研究人员的关注。利用眼动方法评价地图可用性、探求因果关系的研究思路已经较为清晰,研究范式也已逐渐形成;但是将眼动方法拓展到动态交互地图和三维地图、实验环境由实验室环境拓展到真实环境进行地图空间认知研究还处于探索起步阶段;利用眼动跟踪方法进行数据挖掘、构建新型的地图交互模式以及其他实践应用也成为新的研究趋势。
地图视觉认知研究作为一个交叉研究领域,在理论研究和实践应用中需要将心理学、认知科学、计算机科学乃至社会科学的研究方法与地图学和GIS的基本理论和方法相结合,需要各领域专家的协作。我们必须看到,要真正实现地图眼动与视觉认知研究的自动化、实用化和智能化还有相当长的一段路要走。
The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
参考文献 原文顺序
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文中引用次数倒序
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| [15] | . http://utpjournals.metapress.com/openurl.asp?genre=article&id=doi:10.3138/J166-635U-7R56-X2L1 |
| [16] | . Floating car data (FCD) recorded with the Global Positioning System (GPS) are an important data source for traffic research. However, FCD are subject to error, which can relate either to the accuracy of the recordings (measurement error) or to the temporal rate at which the data are sampled (interpolation error). Both errors affect movement parameters derived from the FCD, such as speed or direction, and consequently influence conclusions drawn about the movement. In this paper we combined recent findings about the autocorrelation of GPS measurement error and well-established findings from random walk theory to analyse a set of real-world FCD. First, we showed that the measurement error in the FCD was affected by positive autocorrelation. We explained why this is a quality measure of the data. Second, we evaluated four metrics to assess the influence of interpolation error. We found that interpolation error strongly affects the correct interpretation of the car dynamics (speed, direction), whereas its impact on the path (travelled distance, spatial location) was moderate. Based on these results we gave recommendations for recording of FCD using the GPS. Our recommendations only concern time-based sampling, change-based, location-based or event-based sampling are not discussed. The sampling approach minimizes the effects of error on movement parameters while avoiding the collection of redundant information. This is crucial for obtaining reliable results from FCD. |
| [17] | . The possibility of digital interactivity requires us to reenvision the map reader as the map user, and to address the perceptual, cognitive, cultural, and practical considerations that influence the user’s experience with interactive maps and visualizations. In this article, we present an agenda for empirical research on this user and the interactive designs he or she employs. The research agenda is a result of a multi-stage discussion among international scholars facilitated by the International Cartographic Association that included an early round of position papers and two subsequent workshops to narrow into pressing themes and important research opportunities. The focus of our discussion is epistemological and reflects the wide interdisciplinary influences on user studies in cartography. The opportunities are presented as imperatives that cross basic research and user-centered design studies, and identify practical impediments to empirical research, emerging interdisciplinary recommendations to improve user studies, and key research needs specific to the study of interactive maps and visualizations.La possibilité de l’interactivité numérique nous pousse à revoir le lecteur de cartes comme un utilisateur de cartes et à traiter les considérations perceptuelles, cognitives, culturelles et pratiques qui influencent l’expérience d’un utilisateur de cartes et de visualisations interactives. Dans cet article nous présentons un agenda de recherche empirique sur cet utilisateur et sur les conceptions interactives qu’il ou elle réalise. L’agenda de recherche proposé est le résultat d’une discussion en plusieurs étapes menée par des spécialistes internationaux, facilitée par l’association cartographique internationale selon un processus comprenant un premier ensemble de papiers de positions, suivi de deux ateliers dont les objectifs étaient de se concentrer autour de thèmes prioritaires et d'opportunités de recherche majeures. L’objet de la discussion était épistémologique et reflète les larges influences interdisciplinaires des études portant sur les utilisateurs en cartographie. Les opportunités sont présentées comme des impératifs qui associent les recherches fondamentales aux études de conception centrées utilisateurs. Elles permettent d’identifier les obstacles pratiques aux recherches empiriques, les recommandations interdisciplinaires émergeantes pour améliorer les études des utilisateurs et les besoins de recherche prioritaires spécifiques à l’étude des cartes et visualisations interactives. |
| [18] | . Landmarks are intuitively used in navigational processes as conspicuous points for orientation. Graphical guidelines that ensure a quick visual encoding and easy mental representation in maps do not exist. To breach this gap, an experiment is conducted on three study groups to test whether landmarks are most effectively displayed as vignettes, icons or text symbols in abstract maps. Eye tracking techniques and interviews are carried out with 21 participants to identify the symbol class offering the quickest visual recognition and a detailed mental representation in cognitive maps. The results show that the fixation duration had little variation when the three symbol classes were shown. The landmark symbol class achieving the highest average memory score was the text symbol. |
| [19] | . AbstractA series of four experiments investigating gaze behavior and decision making in the context of wayfinding is reported. Participants were presented with screenshots of choice points taken in large virtual environments. Each screenshot depicted alternative path options. In Experiment 1, participants had to decide between them to find an object hidden in the environment. In Experiment 2, participants were first informed about which path option to take as if following a guided route. Subsequently, they were presented with the same images in random order and had to indicate which path option they chose during initial exposure. In Experiment 1, we demonstrate (1) that participants have a tendency to choose the path option that featured the longer line of sight, and (2) a robust gaze bias towards the eventually chosen path option. In Experiment 2, systematic differences in gaze behavior towards the alternative path options between encoding and decoding were observed. Based on data from Experiments 1 and 2 and two control experiments ensuring that fixation patterns were specific to the spatial tasks, we develop a tentative model of gaze behavior during wayfinding decision making suggesting that particular attention was paid to image areas depicting changes in the local geometry of the environments such as corners, openings, and occlusions. Together, the results suggest that gaze during a wayfinding tasks is directed toward, and can be predicted by, a subset of environmental features and that gaze bias effects are a general phenomenon of visual decision making. |
| [20] | . |
| [21] | . 目前人们对空间定向能力影响因素的研究多关注性别与空间定向能力的关系,较少涉及场认知方式、惯用空间语等因素对空间定向能力的影响。本文以空间认知眼动实验的方式展开研究,通过国内版镶嵌图形测验（EFT）、问卷调查等途径获取被试的场认知方式、性别和惯用空间语等基本信息,使其在控制单一环境变量的虚拟三维空间中完成不同难度的定向任务。进而构建正确率和效率2个指标来衡量空间定向能力,通过统计分析确定空间定向能力的影响因素。研究结果表明：（1）不同场认知方式和不同惯用空间语人群的定向正确率和效率差异统计结果均不显著,场认知方式和惯用空间语对空间定向能力无显著影响;（2）不同性别人群之间定向效率无显著差异而正确率存在显著差异,性别对空间定向能力具有显著影响,男性的空间定向能力较女性更强。 . 目前人们对空间定向能力影响因素的研究多关注性别与空间定向能力的关系,较少涉及场认知方式、惯用空间语等因素对空间定向能力的影响。本文以空间认知眼动实验的方式展开研究,通过国内版镶嵌图形测验（EFT）、问卷调查等途径获取被试的场认知方式、性别和惯用空间语等基本信息,使其在控制单一环境变量的虚拟三维空间中完成不同难度的定向任务。进而构建正确率和效率2个指标来衡量空间定向能力,通过统计分析确定空间定向能力的影响因素。研究结果表明：（1）不同场认知方式和不同惯用空间语人群的定向正确率和效率差异统计结果均不显著,场认知方式和惯用空间语对空间定向能力无显著影响;（2）不同性别人群之间定向效率无显著差异而正确率存在显著差异,性别对空间定向能力具有显著影响,男性的空间定向能力较女性更强。 |
| [22] | |
| [23] | . The growth of web-based mapping is transforming geovisualization. Use of web mapping has become ubiquitous throughout much of the world and has sparked greater public interest in GIS and mapping. Despite the rapid growth of web mapping, there has been relatively little study of the design and usability of web maps. Moreover, the design and function of popular web mapping programs are sometimes at odds with standard GIS and cartographic practices for even the simplest of functions such as zooming into a feature of interest. This study advances understanding of web mapping design via web usability testing based on mouse metrics and eye tracking technology to assess the utility of four different web map navigation schemes: pan zoom; double clicking; zoom by rectangle; and wheel zoom. We found significant differences among the various interfaces, with marked preference for the standard GIS approach of rectangle zoom, followed closely by wheel zoom. Far fewer users preferred the web mapping standard of pan zoom or click zoom. In addition to finding significant differences in usability among these approaches, this work illustrates the broader utility of usability testing and eye tracking technology for creating a better web mapping experience for users. |
| [24] | . |
| [25] | . Developing a visual hierarchy in map displays that is congruent with thematic levels of relevance is a fundamental cartographic design task. Cartographers employ a set of visual variables (e.g., size, color hue, color value, orientation, etc.) for 2-D, static maps to systematically match levels of thematically relevant information to a perceptual hierarchy based on figure round relationships. In this article, we empirically investigate the relationship of thematic relevance and perceptual salience in static weather map displays. We are particularly interested in how novices' viewing patterns are modified when thematically relevant items are made perceptually more salient through design. In essence, we are asking whether perceptually salient elements draw novice viewers' attention to thematically relevant information, whether or not users have domain knowledge. In a factorial experiment, we ask novice participants to evaluate the wind direction in weather maps before and after training all participants on meteorological principles. Our empirical results suggest that display design (i.e., saliency) does not influence the accuracy of response, whether participants have prior knowledge or not (i.e., training). Analysis of the eye-movement patterns, however, suggests that display design does affect viewing behavior and response time. These findings provide rare empirical evidence for generally accepted design practices within the cartographic community (e.g., the effects of visual variables). We chose weather map displays as one typical example of commonly used maps for our study, but the methods employed are generic enough to be applicable to any spatial display (static or interactive) that might be produced by GIScientists, cartographers, geographic information system (GIS) practitioners, and others. |
| [26] | . The aim of this paper is to gain better understanding of the way map users read and interpret the visual stimuli presented to them and how this can be influenced. In particular, the difference between expert and novice map users is considered. In a user study, the participants studied four screen maps which had been manipulated to introduce deviations. The eye movements of 24 expert and novice participants were tracked, recorded, and analyzed (both visually and statistically) based on a grid of Areas of Interest. These visual analyses are essential for studying the spatial dimension of maps to identify problems in design. In this research, we used visualization of eye movement metrics (fixation count and duration) in a 2D and 3D grid and a statistical comparison of the grid cells. The results show that the users’ eye movements clearly reflect the main elements on the map. The users’ attentive behavior is influenced by deviating colors, as their attention is drawn to it. This could also influence the users’ interpretation process. Both user groups encountered difficulties when trying to interpret and store map objects that were mirrored. Insights into how different types of map users read and interpret map content are essential in this fast-evolving era of digital cartographic products. |
| [27] | . |
| [28] | . 图例是人们阅读地图的重要工 具,是地图使用者认知地图内容的钥匙。针对目前地图图例设计尚未标准化的问题,分析现阶段地图图例位置的设计情况,总结了地图图例位置的设计缺陷,并通过 地图使用者对地图上不同位置图例的眼动测试,获取地图使用者读图时的视觉信息,提出地图图例位置的放置原则。 . 图例是人们阅读地图的重要工 具,是地图使用者认知地图内容的钥匙。针对目前地图图例设计尚未标准化的问题,分析现阶段地图图例位置的设计情况,总结了地图图例位置的设计缺陷,并通过 地图使用者对地图上不同位置图例的眼动测试,获取地图使用者读图时的视觉信息,提出地图图例位置的放置原则。 |
| [29] | . |
| [30] | . Psychol Bull. 1974 Dec;81(12):899-917. Research Support, U.S. Gov't, P.H.S.; Review |
| [31] | . A dynamic visual information processing task was designed to investigate time-based and intensity-based factors on an operator''s information processing load as measured by reaction time, pupil diameter, and eye movement parameters. The time-based factor was manipulated by the target rate and scanning rate while the intensity-based factor was manipulated by the difference between a simple reaction task and a physical matching (choice reaction) task. Nine participants tracked the scanning line at two different scanning rates and were required to respond to two designated targets presented singly at two different temporal frequencies. The results indicated that task difficulty (the intensity-based factor) had a significant effect on the reaction time. Target rate and scanning rate were integrated as one time-based factor in terms of three sweeping angles. The time-based factor was found to have a significant effect on the fixation time, saccade amplitude, fixation frequency, eye movement speed, reaction time and hit rate. No interaction effect was found between time-based and intensity-based factors. The time pressure (defined by the time required divided by the time available) based on a model human processor was positively related to scanning rate, target rate and task difficulty. It was found to be the most objective and reliable if time required can be reliably predicted based on a predictive model approach. |
| [32] | . The software development industry requires improved methods for the objective analysis and design of software interfaces. This study provides a foundation for using eye movement analysis as part of an objective evaluation tool for many phases of interface analysis. The present approach is instructional in its definition of eye movement-based measures, and is evaluative with respect to the utility of these measures. |
| [33] | . |
| [34] | // |
| [35] | . 从疏理地图学眼动研究发展轨迹出发,阐述地图学眼动研究的相关概念,论述眼动实验原理、仪器和步骤,并在分析主要眼动参数及其在地图学理论、地图设计等领域应用的基础上,展望地图学眼动研究新的发展方向。 . 从疏理地图学眼动研究发展轨迹出发,阐述地图学眼动研究的相关概念,论述眼动实验原理、仪器和步骤,并在分析主要眼动参数及其在地图学理论、地图设计等领域应用的基础上,展望地图学眼动研究新的发展方向。 |
| [36] | . This paper presents a theoretical account of the sequence and duration of eye fixation during a number of simple cognitive tasks, such as mental rotation, sentence verification, and quantitative comparison. In each case, the eye fixation behavior is linked to a processing model for the task by assuming that the eye fixates the referent of the symbol being operated on. |
| [37] | . Eye movement analysis is gaining popularity as a tool for evaluation of visual displays and interfaces. However, the existing methods and tools for analyzing eye movements and scanpaths are limited in terms of the tasks they can support and effectiveness for large data and data with high variation. We have performed an extensive empirical evaluation of a broad range of visual analytics methods used in analysis of geographic movement data. The methods have been tested for the applicability to eye tracking data and the capability to extract useful knowledge about users' viewing behaviors. This allowed us to select the suitable methods and match them to possible analysis tasks they can support. The paper describes how the methods work in application to eye tracking data and provides guidelines for method selection depending on the analysis tasks. |
| [38] | . Conventional analyses on eye movement data only take into account eye movement metrics, such as the number or the duration of fixations and length of the scanpaths, on which statistical analysis is performed for detecting significant differences. However, the spatial dimension in the eye movements is neglected, which is an essential element when investigating the design of maps. The study described in this paper uses a visual analytics software package, the Visual Analytics Toolkit, to analyse the eye movement data. Selection, simplification and aggregation functions are applied to filter out meaningful subsets of the data to be able to recognise structures in the movement data. Visualising and analysing these patterns provides essential insights in the user search strategies while working on a (n interactive) map. |
| [39] | |
| [40] | . |
| [41] | . The research reported here is motivated by the now ubiquitous nature of web mapping services that provide remotely sensed imagery as a basemap option. Despite the popularity of imagery basemaps, few strategies have been suggested to enhance their readability. Here, we describe a controlled experiment leveraging the eye tracking method to explore the potential of enhancing remotely sensed imagery when used for cartographic presentation. Specifically, 20 participants had their eye movements recorded as they visually searched for areas of interest in either an unmodified image (such as typical in web mapping services) or enhanced image (using image processing routines common to Remote Sensing). By interpreting the eye movement fixations and saccades of participants using a combination of qualitative and quantitative analysis, we found that the image enhancements improved both the effectiveness of and efficiency in identifying areas of interest, particularly those previously concealed in more visually complex areas in the image. The results from this study can be used to improve the readability of web maps that employ remotely sensed imagery as the basemap. |
| [42] | . AbstractThis paper focuses on improving the efficiency and effectiveness of dynamic and interactive maps in relation to the user. A label placement method with an improved algorithmic efficiency is presented. Since this algorithm has an influence on the actual placement of the name labels on the map, it is tested if this efficient algorithms also creates more effective maps: how well is the information processed by the user. We tested 30 participants while they were working on a dynamic and interactive map display. Their task was to locate geographical names on each of the presented maps. Their eye movements were registered together with the time at which a given label was found. The gathered data reveal no difference in the user’s response times, neither in the number and the duration of the fixations between both map designs. The results of this study show that the efficiency of label placement algorithms can be improved without disturbing the user’s cognitive map. Consequently, we created a more effici... |
| [43] | . The primary goal of this study is to empirically analyse the influence of colour distance and font size on map readability. We utilized eye-tracking to complement the classical usability metrics; thus, we studied performance metrics such as effectiveness (i.e. success, accuracy), efficiency (i.e. time to answer, task completion time), and selected eye tracking metrics fixation frequency, fixation duration and scanpath speed as well as conducting an area-of-interest (AOI) analysis to understand the performance and strategy issues that may be influenced by colour distance and font size during map reading. The user experiment was carried out in a controlled laboratory where participants were asked to conduct a visual search task and mark the correct answer with a mouse click on a static map on a computer screen. Collected data was analysed through descriptive and inferential statistics. Task completion times for the five tested colour distances show that as the colour distances grow larger, the relative differences in task completion times become statistically significant; empirically confirming our intuition that larger colour distances are better for map readability. The comparison of the scanpath speeds for the tested font sizes suggests that the medium font size leads to a more efficient search. |
| [44] | . Cartographic animation has been developed and widely used in geo-visualisation and many other areas in recent years. The usability of animated maps is a key characteristic affecting map users’... |
| [45] | . We compared the ability of two legend designs on a soil-landscape map to efficiently and effectively support map reading tasks with the goal of better understanding how the design choices affect user performance. Developing such knowledge is essential to design effective interfaces for digital earth systems. One of the two legends contained an alphabetical ordering of categories, while the other used a perceptual grouping based on the Munsell color space. We tested the two legends for 4 tasks with 20 experts (in geography-related domains). We analyzed traditional usability metrics and participants090005 eye movements to identify the possible reasons behind their success and failure in the experimental tasks. Surprisingly, an overwhelming majority of the participants failed to arrive at the correct responses for two of the four tasks, irrespective of the legend design. Furthermore, participants090005 prior knowledge of soils and map interpretation abilities led to interesting performance differences between the two legend types. We discuss how participant background might have played a role in performance and why some tasks were particularly hard to solve despite participants090005 relatively high levels of experience in map reading. Based on our observations, we caution soil cartographers to be aware of the perceptual complexity of soil-landscape maps. |
| [46] | . This paper proposes combining traditional usability methods with the analysis of eye movement recordings to evaluate interactive map interfaces, and presents a case study in support of this approach. The case study evaluates two informationally equivalent, but differently designed online interactive map interfaces presented to novice users. In a mixed factorial experiment, thirty participants were asked to solve three typical map-use tasks using one of the two interfaces; we then measured user satisfaction, efficiency (completion time) and effectiveness (accuracy) with standard SEE usability metrics. While traditional (bottom line) usability metrics can reveal a range of usability problems, they may be enhanced by additional procedural measures such as eye movement recordings. Eye movements have been shown to help reveal the amount of cognitive processing a display requires and where these cognitive resources are required. Therefore, we can establish how a display may or may not facilitate task completion by analyzing eye movement recordings. User satisfaction information related to tested stimuli (i.e., collected through standardized questionnaires) can also be linked to eye tracking data for further analysis. We hope that the presented methodology and case study will help cartographers and map interface designers to better identify design issues in their products, and that these insights will eventually lead to more effective and efficient online map interfaces. |
| [47] | As you drive into the centre of town, cars and trucks approach from several directions, and pedestrians swarm into the intersection. The wind blows a newspaper into the gutter and a pigeon does something unexpected on your windshield. This would be a demanding and stressful situation, but you would probably make it to the other side of town without mishap. Why is this situation taxing, and how do you cope? |
| [48] | . We propose an empirical, perception-based evaluation approach for assessing the effectiveness and efficiency of longstanding cartographic design principles applied to 2D map displays. The approach... |
| [49] | . Cartographic animation has been developed and widely used in geo-visualisation and many other areas in recent years. The usability of animated maps is a key characteristic affecting map users’... |
| [50] | . The quality of dynamic map symbols plays an important role in the representation of spatial-temporal changes. This paper reports an investigation into the quality of dynamic symbols. To assess the quality of such symbols, a set of traffic flow data is used for the production of different kinds of dynamic maps, with focus on four variables, i.e. size, color, frame rate and display format. Two quantitative measures are used for analysis, i.e. deviation and response time. A set of traffic data is used for the production of dynamic maps for evaluation. The experimental results show that the size is more efficient and more effective than color for dynamic maps with the same frame rate and display format. The most efficient and effective color class number is 10 on the large format display such as 1024 768 pixels. And the most efficient and effective size class number is 15 on large format display such as 1024 768 pixels. The effective frame rate for dynamic map animation is smaller than that of the general animation on the Internet or Quick Time and AVI format video. The most efficient and most effective frame rate is 3 frames per second in the color expression and 6 frames per second in the size expression. In sum, the effective and efficient value of color, size and frame rate on large format display is less than the value on the small format display. These results suggest the frame rate should be reduced on the small format display. It is hoped that the results from this study will be of help in the design of effective and efficient dynamic map symbols for geographical information visualization. |
| [51] | . User evaluations of interactive and dynamic applications face various challenges related to the active nature of these displays. For example, users can often zoom and pan on digital products, and... |
| [52] | . |
| [53] | . Spatial information acquisition happens in large part through the visual sense. Studying visual attention and its connection to cognitive processes has been the interest of many research efforts in spatial cognition over the years. Recent technological developments have led to an increasing popularity of eye-tracking methodology for investigating research questions related to spatial cognition, geographic information science (GIScience) and cartography. At the same time, eye trackers can nowadays be used as an input device for (cognitively engineered) user interfaces to geographic information. We provide an overview of the most recent literature advancing and utilizing eye-tracking methodology in these fields, introduce the research articles in this Special Issue, and discuss challenges and opportunities for future research. |
| [54] | . All geographers use and may create maps in their professional activities. While perceived by some as merely tools to present spatial information, maps are actually complicated communication mechanisms. Many geographers spend tremendous amounts of time learning about verbal and written communication (how to speak, listen, read critically, and write effectively). But to many, one of the basic tools of geographic communication, the map, is a general source of unknown. Many previous papers have focused on how to create effective maps; this paper focuses on how people read and use navigation maps. Everyone completes map-reading tasks, uses (often different) strategies, and processes information through cognitive processing. Geographers may benefit from understanding how they, as well as their map-viewing public, process the information contained on their maps. This paper addresses terms and issues addressed in navigational map reading, specifically including tasks and strategies as well as the governing cognitive processes. |
| [55] | |
| [56] | . Some map users still experience difficulties when attempting to route plan, navigate and/or wayfind. This paper provides information on the outcomes of a research project that aims to identify the nature of the difficulties/challenges these users experience. The paper draws on findings from studies of strategies used by novice and experienced map users, and users with poor spatial abilities, to identify the skills that those with poor spatial abilities or with little map reading experience lack. Data were collected using Tobii Pro Glasses 2 hardware and associated software. Fourteen participants walked between two predetermined locations while wearing eye-tracking glasses and speaking their thoughts aloud. The data collected in this study were analysed using quantitative and qualitative approaches. Analysis of the results shows three key findings for this particular group: looking at the map incessantly led to missed environmental cues; street names were not labelled at decision-making points on the map; and some individuals having poor spatial abilities prefer small-scale landmarks, for example, buildings with numbers to locate themselves, as opposed to using road names or larger landmarks. We argue that by considering these findings, map designs could be adjusted to meet the needs of map users with poor spatial abilities. |
| [57] | . |
| [58] | . This study assesses gender differences in wayfinding in environments with global or local landmarks by analyzing both overall and fine-grained measures of performance. Both female and male participants were required to locate targets in grid-like virtual environments with local or global landmarks. Interestingly, the results of the two overall measures did not converge: although females spent more time than males in locating targets, both genders were generally equivalent in terms of corrected travel path. Fine-grained measures account for different aspects of wayfinding behavior and provide additional information that explains the divergence in overall measures; females spent less time traveling away from the target location, a higher proportion of time not traversing, and made more rotations when stopping than males did. Rather than unequivocally supporting male superiority in wayfinding tasks, both the overall and fine-grained measures partially indicate that males and females are differentially superior when using global and local landmark information, respectively. To summarize, males moved faster than females but did not necessarily navigate the spatial surroundings more efficiently. Each gender showed different strengths related to wayfinding; these differences require the application of both overall and fine-grained measures for accurate assessment. |
| [59] | . In visual navigation, landmarks can be used in a number of different ways. In this paper, we investigate the role of global and local landmarks in virtual environment navigation. We performed an experiment in a virtual environment called exatown , consisting of a regular hexagonal grid of streets and junctions. Each junction was identified by the presence of distinct local landmarks (buildings, phone box, and so on). Additionally, compass information or a global frame of reference was provided by global landmarks (hilltop, television tower, and city skyline). According to participants' movement decisions, egomotion was simulated, and displayed on a 180 deg. projection screen. Participants learned the route back and forth between two local landmarks. In the test phase, individual junctions were approached and the participant's movement decision was recorded. We performed two experiments involving landmark changes after learning. In the first, we used conflicting cues by transposing landmarks. In the second experiment, we reduced either local or global landmark information. Results show that both local and global landmarks are used in wayfinding decisions. However, different participants rely on different strategies. In the first experiment (cue conflict) for example, some of the participants used only local landmarks while others relied exclusively on global landmarks. Other participants used local landmarks at one location and global landmarks at the other. When removing one landmark type in the second experiment, the other type could be used by almost all participants, indicating that information about the neglected landmark type was present in memory. |
| [60] | . Abstract Despite the now-ubiquitous two-dimensional (2D) electronic maps, three-dimensional (3D) globe viewers, or 3D geo-browsers such as Google Earth and NASA World Wind have gained much attention. However, the effect of such interactive 3D geo-browsers on spatial knowledge acquisition and decision-making is not well known. This study aims to explore the potential benefits of using interactive 3D geo-browsers in three processes of pedestrian navigation (self-localization, spatial knowledge acquisition, and decision-making) in digital environments. We employed eye tracking to show differences of visual attention in pedestrian navigation between a 2D map (Google Map) and a 3D geo-browser (Google Earth). The results indicated that benefits and drawbacks of 3D representations are task dependent. Participants using the 3D geo-browser had an extensively visual search resulting in significantly longer response time than the 2D participants for spatial knowledge acquisition, whereas 3D users performed a more efficient visual search and resulted in a better navigation performance at complex decision points. We speculate that the inefficient knowledge acquisition when using the 3D geo-browser was most probably due to information overload and obstructed views. Landmarks in photorealistic 3D models assisted recall of spatial knowledge from mental maps, which contributed to efficient decision-making at a complex turning point. These empirical results can be helpful to improve the usability of pedestrian navigation systems. |
| [61] | . In this study, the nature of the spatial representations of an environment acquired from maps, navigation, and virtual environments (VEs) was assessed. Participants first learned the layout of a simple desktop VE and then were tested in that environment. Then, participants learned two floors of a complex building in one of three learning conditions: from a map, from direct experience, or by traversing through a virtual rendition of the building. VE learners showed the poorest learning of the complex environment overall, and the results suggest that VE learners are particularly susceptible to disorientation after rotation. However, all the conditions showed similar levels of performance in learning the layout of landmarks on a single floor. Consistent with previous research, an alignment effect was present for map learners, suggesting that they had formed an orientation-specific representation of the environment. VE learners also showed a preferred orientation, as defined by their initial orientation when learning the environment. Learning the initial simple VE was highly predictive of learning a real environment, suggesting that similar cognitive mechanisms are involved in the two learning situations. |
| [62] | . Previous research on landmark selection and route learning derived many of its conclusions from the analysis of memory tasks and verbal route descriptions. We examined the extent to which these findings are reflected in gaze behavior. Wearing a mobile eye tracking device, participants learned the first part of a real-world route incidentally and the second part intentionally. When compared with incidental learning, intentional learning led to a stronger focus on landmarks at structurally salient locations. In contrast, landmarks with a higher level of visual salience attracted generally more fixation time. This finding remained unaffected by learning intention. Our results support the validity of established theoretical frameworks about landmark selection and route learning by extending them to the level of gaze behavior. Additionally, they provide insight into subtle changes of properties determining a landmark''s salience as a result of learning intention. |
| [63] | . Space-geometric measures are proposed to explain the location of fixations during wayfinding. Results from an eye tracking study based on real-world stimuli are analysed; the gaze bias shows that attention is paid to structural elements in the built environment. Three space-geometric measures are used to explain the data: sky area, floor area and longest line of sight. Together with the finding that participants choose the more connected street, a relationship is proposed between the individual cognitive processes that occur during wayfinding, relative street connectivity measured through space syntactic techniques and the spatial geometry of the environment. The paper adopts an egocentric approach to gain a greater understanding on how individuals process the axial map. |
| [64] | . How do people distribute their visual attention in the natural environment? We and our colleagues have usually addressed this question by showing pictures, photographs or videos of natural scenes under controlled conditions and recording participants eye movements as they view them. In the present study, we investigated whether people distribute their gaze in the same way when they are immersed and moving in the world compared to when they view video clips taken from the perspective of a walker. Participants wore a mobile eye tracker while walking to buy a coffee, a trip that required a short walk outdoors through the university campus. They subsequently watched first-person videos of the walk in the lab. Our results focused on where people directed their eyes and their head, what objects were gazed at and when attention-grabbing items were selected. Eye movements were more centralised in the real world, and locations around the horizon were selected with head movements. Other pedestrians, the path, and objects in the distance were looked at often in both the lab and the real world. However, there were some subtle differences in how and when these items were selected. For example, pedestrians close to the walker were fixated more often when viewed on video than in the real world. These results provide a crucial test of the relationship between real behaviour and eye movements measured in the lab. |
| [65] | . . |
| [66] | . Abstract Self-localization is the process of identifying one's current position on a map, and it is a crucial part of any wayfinding process. During self-localization the wayfinder matches visually perceptible features of the environment, such as landmarks, with map symbols to constrain potential locations on the map. The success of this visual matching process constitutes an important factor for the success of self-localization. In this research we aim at observing the visual matching process between environment and map during self-localization with real-world mobile eye tracking. We report on one orientation and one self-localization experiment, both in an outdoor urban environment. The gaze data collected during the experiments show that successful participants put significantly more visual attention to those symbols on the map that were helpful in the given situation than unsuccessful participants. A sequence analysis revealed that they also had significantly more switches of visual attention between map symbols and their corresponding landmarks in the environment, which suggests they were following a more effective self-localization strategy. |
| [67] | . This article describes two user studies that evaluate different interface designs of indoor pedestrian navigation systems displaying landmarks. In particular, very reduced and abstract interfaces only showing route segments and landmarks are compared to depictions additionally showing floor plans. For this purpose, not only the time it took the participants to fulfill the task, but also eye-tracking data were analyzed. The first experiment (N = 81) was carried out with a smartphone. In the second study (N = 69), a device with a bigger screen was used so that gazes on different screen elements could be analyzed. Results show that the participants reach their destination faster with the abstract interface and, moreover, spend less visual attention on this interface. |
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| [77] | . 在常规地图符号参量体系上,通过引入动态特征、交互式操作等方面的参量,提出了三维地图符号的视觉参量,它由状态、动态变化和操作三个方面的参量组成,并采用认知实验研究了这些符号参量在质量特征、数量特征、关系特征以及动态特征等信息表达上的应用及功效。 . 在常规地图符号参量体系上,通过引入动态特征、交互式操作等方面的参量,提出了三维地图符号的视觉参量,它由状态、动态变化和操作三个方面的参量组成,并采用认知实验研究了这些符号参量在质量特征、数量特征、关系特征以及动态特征等信息表达上的应用及功效。 |
| [78] | [D]. [D]. |
| [79] | . <p>传统地图符号视觉参量研究,主要是对地图颜色、形状、尺寸、方向等进行分析。本文通过眼动跟踪三维地图认知实验与眼动参数解析,建构了视场角和观察角度对于三维地图有效性和效率影响的评价指标体系,定量分析了2个参量对三维地图视觉信息加工的影响。实验结果表明：视场角对三维地图中垂直方向信息提取的有效性和实体形状信息提取的有效性影响显著;对实体间角度信息提取的效率影响边缘显著,而对垂直方向信息提取的效率、水平方向信息提取的有效性和效率、实体间角度信息提取的有效性、形状信息提取的效率影响不显著;观察角度对垂直方向信息、水平方向信息,以及实体间角度信息感知的效率和有效性的影响都不显著,但对实体形状信息感知的效率和有效性均有显著影响。该研究适用于三维地图适人化设计、表达与自动理解。</p> . <p>传统地图符号视觉参量研究,主要是对地图颜色、形状、尺寸、方向等进行分析。本文通过眼动跟踪三维地图认知实验与眼动参数解析,建构了视场角和观察角度对于三维地图有效性和效率影响的评价指标体系,定量分析了2个参量对三维地图视觉信息加工的影响。实验结果表明：视场角对三维地图中垂直方向信息提取的有效性和实体形状信息提取的有效性影响显著;对实体间角度信息提取的效率影响边缘显著,而对垂直方向信息提取的效率、水平方向信息提取的有效性和效率、实体间角度信息提取的有效性、形状信息提取的效率影响不显著;观察角度对垂直方向信息、水平方向信息,以及实体间角度信息感知的效率和有效性的影响都不显著,但对实体形状信息感知的效率和有效性均有显著影响。该研究适用于三维地图适人化设计、表达与自动理解。</p> |
| [80] | . An understanding of guidance, which means guiding attention, and constancy, meaning that an area can be perceived for what it is despite environmental changes, of the visual variables related to three-dimensional (3D) symbols is essential to ensure rapid and consistent human perception in 3D visualization. Previous studies have focused on the guidance and constancy of visual variables related to two-dimensional (2D) symbols, but these aspects are not well documented for 3D symbols. In this study, we used eye tracking to analyze the visual guidance from shapes, hues and sizes, and the visual constancy that is related to the shape, color saturation and size of 3D symbols in different locations. Thirty-six subjects (24 females and 12 males) participated in the study. The results indicate that hue and shape provide a high level of visual guidance, whereas guidance from size, a variable that predominantly guides attention in 2D visualization, is much more limited in 3D visualization. Additionally, constancy of shape and saturation are perceived with relatively high accuracy, whereas constancy of size is perceived with only low accuracy. These first empirical studies are intended to pave the way for a more comprehensive user understanding of 3D visualization design. |
| [81] | . |
| [82] | , |
| [83] | . With the evolution of mapping technology, electronic maps are gradually evolving from traditional 2D formats, and increasingly using a 3D format to represent environmental features. However, these two types of spatial maps might produce different visual attention modes, leading to different spatial wayfinding (or searching) decisions. This study designs a search task for a spatial object to demonstrate whether different types of spatial maps indeed produce different visual attention and decision making. We use eye tracking technology to record the content of visual attention for 44 test subjects with normal eyesight when looking at 2D and 3D maps. The two types of maps have the same scope, but their contents differ in terms of composition, material, and visual observation angle. We use a t test statistical model to analyze differences in indices of eye movement, applying spatial autocorrelation to analyze the aggregation of fixation points and the strength of aggregation. The results show that aside from seek time, there are significant differences between 2D and 3D electronic maps in terms of fixation time and saccade amplitude. This study uses a spatial autocorrelation model to analyze the aggregation of the spatial distribution of fixation points. The results show that in the 2D electronic map the spatial clustering of fixation points occurs in a range of around 12 from the center, and is accompanied by a shorter viewing time and larger saccade amplitude. In the 3D electronic map, the spatial clustering of fixation points occurs in a range of around 9 from the center, and is accompanied by a longer viewing time and smaller saccadic amplitude. The two statistical tests shown above demonstrate that 2D and 3D electronic maps produce different viewing behaviors. The 2D electronic map is more likely to produce fast browsing behavior, which uses rapid eye movements to piece together preliminary information about the overall environment. This enables basic information about the environment to be obtained quickly, but at the cost of the level of detail of the information obtained. However, in the 3D electronic map, more focused browsing occurs. Longer fixations enable the user to gather detailed information from points of interest on the map, and thereby obtain more information about the environment (such as material, color, and depth) and determine the interaction between people and the environment. However, this mode requires a longer viewing time and greater use of directed attention, and therefore may not be conducive to use over a longer period of time. After summarizing the above research findings, the study suggests that future electronic maps can consider combining 2D and 3D modes to simultaneously display electronic map content. Such a mixed viewing mode can provide a more effective viewing interface for human 搈achine interaction in cyberspace. |
| [84] | . Abstract Zika virus (ZIKV) has recently caused a pandemic disease, and many cases of ZIKV infection in pregnant women resulted in abortion, stillbirth, deaths and congenital defects including microcephaly, which now has been proposed as ZIKV congenital syndrome. This study aimed to investigate the in situ immune response profile and mechanisms of neuronal cell damage in fatal Zika microcephaly cases. Brain tissue samples were collected from 15 cases, including 10 microcephalic ZIKV-positive neonates with fatal outcome and five neonatal control flavivirus-negative neonates that died due to other causes, but with preserved central nervous system (CNS) architecture. In microcephaly cases, the histopathological features of the tissue samples were characterized in three CNS areas (meninges, perivascular space, and parenchyma). The changes found were mainly calcification, necrosis, neuronophagy, gliosis, microglial nodules, and inflammatory infiltration of mononuclear cells. The in situ immune response against ZIKV in the CNS of newborns is complex. Despite the predominant expression of Th2 cytokines, other cytokines such as Th1, Th17, Treg, Th9, and Th22 are involved to a lesser extent, but are still likely to participate in the immunopathogenic mechanisms of neural disease in fatal cases of microcephaly caused by ZIKV. |
| [85] | [OL/EB]. . . |
| [86] | . The experiments described in this article combine response time measurements and eye movement data to gain insight into the users' cognitive processes while working with dynamic and interactive maps. Experts and novices participated in a user study with a ‘between user’ design. Twenty screen maps were presented in a random order to each participant, on which he had to execute a visual search. The combined information of the button actions and eye tracker reveals that both user groups showed a similar pattern in the time intervals needed to locate the subsequent names. From this pattern, information about the users' cognitive load could be derived: use of working memory, learning effect and so on. Moreover, the response times also showed that experts were significantly faster in finding the names in the map image. This is further explained by the eye movement metrics: experts had significantly shorter fixations and more fixations per second meaning that they could interpret a larger part of the map in the same amount of time. As a consequence, they could locate objects in the map image more efficiently and thus faster. |
| [87] | . |
| [88] | . This study examines the relationship between map drawing skills and spatial orientation abilities. Ninety-six students (48 males and 48 females) from the University of Rome “La Sapienza” studied an adapted map of the archeological site of the Palatine Hill. Then, participants were asked to draw a map and to perform some spatial orientation tasks tapping landmark, route and survey knowledge. Results showed a strong relationship among various map drawing skills and spatial orientation abilities. However, such a relationship was more marked in males than in females. In addition, males needed less time to learn the map, were more accurate than females in map drawing, and showed higher levels of performance on road drawing. Overall, these gender differences can be interpreted as deriving from the use of different map learning strategies: males approach the map from a global perspective and whereas females focus on local features. |
| [89] | . Visual analytics is often based on the intuition that highly interactive and dynamic depictions of complex and multivariate databases amplify human capabilities for inference and decision-making, as they facilitate cognitive tasks such as pattern recognition, association, and analytical reasoning (Thomas and Cook 2005). But how do we know whether visual analytics really works? This article offers a generic evaluation approach combining theory- and data-driven methods based on sequence similarity analysis. The approach systematically studies users' visual interaction strategies when using highly interactive interfaces. We specifically ask whether the efficiency (i.e., speed) of users can be characterized by specific display interaction event sequences, and whether studying user strategies could be employed to improve the (interaction) design of the dynamic displays. We showcase our approach using a very large, fine-grained spatiotemporal dataset of eye movement recordings collected during a controlled human subject experiment with dynamic visual analytics displays. With this methodological approach based on empirical evidence, we hope to contribute to a deeper understanding of how people make inferences and decisions with highly interactive visualization tools and complex displays. |
| [90] | . In this article, we use eye-tracking methods to analyze the differences in spatial ability between geographers and non-geographers regarding topographic maps, as reflected in the following three aspects: map-based spatial localization, map-based spatial orientation, and map-based spatial visualization. We recruited 32 students from Beijing Normal University (BNU) and divided them into groups of geographers and non-geographers based on their major. In terms of their spatial localization ability, geographers had shorter response times, higher fixation frequencies, and fewer saccades than non-geographers, and the differences were significant. For their spatial orientation ability, compared to non-geographers, geographers had significantly lower response times, lower fixation counts and fewer saccades as well as significantly higher fixation frequencies. In terms of their spatial visualization ability, geographers response times were significantly shorter than those of non-geographers, but there was no significant difference between the two groups in terms of fixation count, fixation frequency or saccade count. We also found that compared to geographers, non-geographers usually spent more time completing these tasks. The results of this study are helpful in improving the map-based spatial ability of users of topographic maps. |
| [91] | . 针对地图用户分类缺少量化研究的问题,本文进行了问卷调查。并用二阶聚类和层次聚类确定四类用户样本;采用K-均值聚类方法获取聚类中心坐标,建立用户聚类模型,其方差分析显著;对两个特定用户进行判别分析,说明了该模型的应用方法。该研究对于地图设计个性化匹配及提高地图可用性等具有重要意义。 . 针对地图用户分类缺少量化研究的问题,本文进行了问卷调查。并用二阶聚类和层次聚类确定四类用户样本;采用K-均值聚类方法获取聚类中心坐标,建立用户聚类模型,其方差分析显著;对两个特定用户进行判别分析,说明了该模型的应用方法。该研究对于地图设计个性化匹配及提高地图可用性等具有重要意义。 |
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| [98] | . Abstract Pedestrian navigation assistance is often utilized in familiar as well as in unfamiliar environments. In recent years, several novel approaches have been introduced relying on map-based, vibrotactile or gaze-based interaction. We introduce a novel interaction concept named ‘VibroGaze’ that combines the benefits of vibrotactile and gaze-based interaction for pedestrian navigation. Furthermore, we present the results of a between subjects experiment with 40 participants for the evaluation of four of the most novel pedestrian navigation approaches in an indoor (multi-level building) as well as an outdoor setting. The results showed that our proposed navigation concept can effectively assist the users during navigation. Moreover, the findings revealed differences between the two tested environments and suggest that the typical map-based approach is still the most efficient navigation aid for indoor environments. |
| [99] | // |
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| [103] | . 为解决网络地图个性化推荐过程中点状符号用户兴趣分析结果准确性低的问题，提出了一种基于眼动数据的网络地图点状符号用户兴趣分析方法。利用空间认知测试法筛选39名认知能力一致的被试者参与实验，使用眼动仪采集被试者在浏览4类点状符号素材过程中的眼动数据，同时记录被试者的鼠标数据；分别计算时间、次数与尺寸类型眼动数据用户兴趣度，利用熵权法将3类数据进行整合，设计了一种基于多项眼动数据的用户兴趣度计算方法。研究结果表明，用户兴趣度分析结果正确率为85.9%，优于鼠标数据，证明所提方法能够有效分析用户兴趣，点状符号用户兴趣度计算公式稳定可靠，有助于提升个性化推荐结果的准确度。 . 为解决网络地图个性化推荐过程中点状符号用户兴趣分析结果准确性低的问题，提出了一种基于眼动数据的网络地图点状符号用户兴趣分析方法。利用空间认知测试法筛选39名认知能力一致的被试者参与实验，使用眼动仪采集被试者在浏览4类点状符号素材过程中的眼动数据，同时记录被试者的鼠标数据；分别计算时间、次数与尺寸类型眼动数据用户兴趣度，利用熵权法将3类数据进行整合，设计了一种基于多项眼动数据的用户兴趣度计算方法。研究结果表明，用户兴趣度分析结果正确率为85.9%，优于鼠标数据，证明所提方法能够有效分析用户兴趣，点状符号用户兴趣度计算公式稳定可靠，有助于提升个性化推荐结果的准确度。 |
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| [108] | . The traditional important role of maps used for educational purposes has gained further potential with recent advances in GIS technology. But beyond specific courses in cartography this potential seems little realized in geography teaching. This article investigates the extent to which any learning benefits may be derived from the use of such technologies. A controlled experiment was conducted to examine whether information recall is improved when cartographic information on population distribution is presented in 2D versus 3D form. The results show statistically significant differences in learning benefits between the two formats, largely in favor of 2D representation. These findings suggest that learning benefits can be derived from paying greater attention to map format in educational settings. |
| [109] | . Vehicle-driving in real traffic can be considered as a human-machine system involving not only the attribute of the vehicle movement but also the human visual perception, cognition and motion of the driver. The study of driving behaviours, therefore, would integrate information related to driver psychology, vehicle dynamics and road information in order to tackle research questions concerning driving safety. This paper describes a conceptual framework and an integrated GIS data model of a visual-motor coordination model (VMCM) to investigate drivers090005 driving behaviour via the combination of vision tracking and vehicle positioning. The eye tracker recorded eye fixations and duration on video images to exhibit the driver090005s visual search pattern and the traffic scenes. Real-time kinematic (RTK) post-processing of multi-GNSS (global navigation satellite system) tracking generated the vehicle movement trajectory at centimeter-level accuracy, which encompasses precise lateral positioning and speed control parameters of driving behaviours. The eye fixation data were then geocoded and linked to the vehicle movement trajectory to represent the VMCM on the GIS platform. An implementation prototype of the framework and the VMCM for a study of older drivers is presented in this paper. The spatial-temporal visualisation and statistical analysis based on the VMCM data-set allow for a greater insight into the inherent variability of older drivers090005 visual search and motor behaviours. The research framework has demonstrated a discriminant and ecologically valid approach in driving behaviour assessment, which can also be used in studies for other cohort populations with modified driving scenarios or experiment designs. |
| [110] | // |
| [111] | . 随着社会发展和技术进步,地图学经历了并正在继续经历着巨大的变化,这应当是人类创新思维的推动。从8个方面论述了改变地图学的创新思维,正是这些创新思维使地图学这门具有悠久历史的传统学科生机勃勃、充满活力,如今传统地图学（地图制图学）已发展成为地图制图学与地理信息工程（地理信息系统）学科,传统地图学已经被数字化地图学所取代,正向以地理空间信息综合服务为核心的信息化地图学转变。地图学发展的历史表明,创新思维是必不可少的。 . 随着社会发展和技术进步,地图学经历了并正在继续经历着巨大的变化,这应当是人类创新思维的推动。从8个方面论述了改变地图学的创新思维,正是这些创新思维使地图学这门具有悠久历史的传统学科生机勃勃、充满活力,如今传统地图学（地图制图学）已发展成为地图制图学与地理信息工程（地理信息系统）学科,传统地图学已经被数字化地图学所取代,正向以地理空间信息综合服务为核心的信息化地图学转变。地图学发展的历史表明,创新思维是必不可少的。 |
