删除或更新信息,请邮件至freekaoyan#163.com(#换成@)

区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合作用机制分析

本站小编 Free考研考试/2021-12-29

赵荣钦1,, 李志萍1, 韩宇平2, 张战平1, 丁明磊1
1. 华北水利水电大学资源与环境学院,郑州 450045
2. 华北水利水电大学黄河科学研究院,郑州 450045
3. 不列颠哥伦比亚大学资源环境与可持续发展研究所,加拿大 V6T 1Z4

The coupling interaction mechanism of regional water-land-energy-carbon system

ZHAORongqin1,, LIZhiping1, HANYuping2, MilindKANDLIKAR3, ZHANGZhanping1, DINGMinglei1
1. School of Resources and Environment, North China University of Water Resources and Electric Power, Zhengzhou 450045, China
2. The Yellow River Institute of Science, North China University of Water Resources and Electric Power, Zhengzhou 450045, China
3. Institute for Resources, Environment and Sustainability, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, V6T 1Z4, Canada
收稿日期:2016-02-4
修回日期:2016-05-5
网络出版日期:2016-11-25
版权声明:2016《地理学报》编辑部本文是开放获取期刊文献,在以下情况下可以自由使用:学术研究、学术交流、科研教学等,但不允许用于商业目的.
基金资助:国家自然科学基金项目(41301633, 51679089)
作者简介:
-->作者简介:赵荣钦(1978-), 男, 河南孟津人, 博士后, 副教授, 中国地理学会会员(S110008988M), 从事土地利用与碳排放研究。E-mail: zhaorq234@163.com



展开

摘要
在相关研究的基础上,对区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合系统及其要素关系进行解析;分析其耦合作用机制、主要研究视角和影响因素;并提出了未来的研究趋向。① 区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合作用系统不仅体现了地表系统四大圈层的作用,更以水循环、土地利用、能量流通、碳循环的形式构成了区域“自然—经济—社会”的核心内容,该系统不仅反映了区域不同资源类型的匹配关系和开发利用效率,也体现了人类社会对环境的影响程度;② 该系统可以分为三个相互联系、相互作用的子系统:水系统、土地系统和能源系统。它们之间通过不同途径相互联系、互为资源,共同构成了区域社会经济发展的资源基础,而区域碳排放强度则主要取决于水、土、能等要素之间相互需求的类型、产业活动方式和能源类型与结构等;③ 区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合作用机制可以从微观角度、产业活动、土地利用等不同视角来分析;④ 区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合作用系统主要受自然、经济、社会和压力等因素的影响。其中经济因素,特别是经济发展水平、生产效率和技术水平是系统结构、功能和效率的决定性要素;⑤ 未来应重点从区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合系统模拟、其与气候变化和粮食安全的关系、资源耦合开发的碳排放效率及其综合评估与调控研究等方面开展研究。

关键词:区域;水—;土—;能—;;耦合;机制
Abstract
Water, land, energy and carbon are key elements of earth's surface system. Researches on regional water-land-energy-carbon system (WLEC system) will not only help to reveal the impact mechanism of resource coupling exploitation on carbon emissions, but also has great significance to explore low-carbon development mode based on water, land and energy saving. Based on the literature review, this paper analyzed the element relationship of regional WLEC system, discussed the coupling interaction mechanism, research perspectives and impact factors of regional WLEC system, and put forward the future research points in this field. The main conclusions are as follows: (1) Regional WLEC system reflects the interactions among different spheres of earth's surface system. Through water cycle, land use, energy flow and carbon cycle, WLEC system becomes the core of regional natural-economic-social system. It not only reflects the matching relationship and exploitation efficiency of regional resources, but also embodies the impact extent of human activities on environment. (2) Regional WLEC system can be divided into three subsystems: water system, land system and energy system. They interacted with each other and together formed the resource base for the regional socio-economic development. Regional carbon emission intensity is mainly determined by the need relationship among three subsystems, industrial activities and energy structure. (3) Regional WLEC system can be studied from different perspectives such as microscopic view, industrial activities and land use. (4) Regional WLEC system is influenced by natural, economic, social and pressure factors, in which economic factor, especially economic development level, production efficiency and technology, is the determinant factor of the function and efficiency of regional WLEC system. (5) In the future, modeling of regional WLEC system, relationship between WLEC system and climate change and food security, carbon emission efficiency of resource coupling exploitation and the integrated evaluation and regulation of WLEC system should be strengthened.

Keywords:region;water-land-energy-carbon system;coupling;mechanism

-->0
PDF (1779KB)元数据多维度评价相关文章收藏文章
本文引用格式导出EndNoteRisBibtex收藏本文-->
赵荣钦, 李志萍, 韩宇平, 张战平, 丁明磊. 区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合作用机制分析[J]. , 2016, 71(9): 1613-1628 https://doi.org/10.11821/dlxb201609012
ZHAO Rongqin, LI Zhiping, HAN Yuping, Milind KANDLIKAR, ZHANG Zhanping, DING Minglei. The coupling interaction mechanism of regional water-land-energy-carbon system[J]. 地理学报, 2016, 71(9): 1613-1628 https://doi.org/10.11821/dlxb201609012

1 引言

水、土、能、碳是地球表层系统中与人类活动密切相关的关键要素,对这些要素及其耦合关系开展研究是资源环境领域的核心研究内容之一。长期以来,国内外针对单一要素的研究较多,虽然也有针对二、三种要素的关系研究,如水能资源耦合[1]、能源消费碳排放[2]、土地利用、能源消费和碳排放的关系[3]等,并在此基础上开展了资源开发的碳排放效应研究,为了解资源能源开发与碳排放的关系提供了有益的参考。但目前来看,对于区域层面“水—土—能—碳”的多要素系统耦合研究还相对较少。近年来,随着全球性生态环境问题的突出和气候变化的推动,一些****从气候变化[4]、生态系统服务[5]和粮食生产[6]等角度开展了针对区域系统“水—土—能”的多要素关系研究,尝试从要素耦合系统评估的角度分析人类活动对环境的压力以及对“自然—经济—社会”复合系统功能的影响。“水—土—能—碳”的耦合关系是区域“自然—社会—经济”系统的核心,区域水、土、能等资源往往是耦合开发的,任何一种人类产业活动,既需要水、能的投入,又需要土地的开发与占用。但对不同区域及不同人类活动方式而言,各种资源的需求规模、组合方式、开发强度及利用效率不同,这导致了各项人类活动的碳排放强度具有明显的差异。而前期关于碳排放的研究更多的是关注碳排放本身的区域差异,而较少关注引起碳排放的区域人类活动中各种资源能源的投入比例和使用效率,以及资源耦合关系对碳排放效率的影响。因此,前期研究缺乏从资源开发的源头探寻人类开发活动对区域环境及气候变化的影响。因此,区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合研究还处于探索阶段,其耦合作用机制研究还需要进一步加强。
开展“水—土—能—碳”耦合作用机制研究具有重要的理论和实践价值。从理论上而言,开展区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合系统研究,有助于揭示多种资源耦合开发过程对碳排放的影响机制,探讨区域综合开发与生产过程中的各种资源、能源组合格局和利用效率与碳排放效率的关系,而且有助于通过资源耦合机制的研究进一步阐明区域“自然—社会—经济”系统的运行状态和效率,为区域系统资源耦合及其环境效应研究提供新的理论视角。从实践角度来看,随着我国经济社会的快速发展,资源约束不断趋紧、土地占用不断加剧、能源消耗持续增多、环境压力进一步加大,同时,快速增长的碳排放量也使中国在国际气候变化谈判中面临较大的政治压力。党的“十八大”报告提出要“全面促进资源节约,大幅降低能源、水、土地消耗强度,提高利用效率和效益”;国家“十三五”规划纲要提出要实现“能源资源开发利用效率大幅提高,能源和水资源消耗、建设用地、碳排放总量得到有效控制”。同时,国家也提出了碳排放强度下降的约束指标,并力争在2030年左右碳排放达到峰值。这些都为未来资源能源节约和低碳转型指明了道路。因此,探讨水、土、能等资源耦合作用及其与碳排放的关系,寻求低碳高效的水、土、能综合利用模式,将是当前及今后一定时期要面对的重要科学问题。从碳排放评估的角度开展区域“水—土—能”耦合机制研究,可以进一步阐明人类各项活动中的资源利用效率及其组合关系,为人类经济社会活动中的资源节约提供科学的实践指导,并进一步提升区域发展效率和可持续水平,推动生产方式的转变和经济社会的低碳转型。因此,开展“水—土—能—碳”耦合作用机制研究不仅有助于从生产源头和资源耦合开发的角度综合评估区域人类活动应对气候变化的碳减排潜力,而且对于推动资源节约和提高生产效率、降低水、土、能消耗强度、探索节水、节地、节能的低碳生产方式、探索区域低碳、可持续发展模式等也具有重要的实践意义。
鉴于此,本文在近年来国内外相关研究进行综述的基础上,从理论角度上,对区域 “水—土—能—碳”耦合系统(WLEC system)及其要素关系进行解析,分析多要素系统耦合作用的机制和影响因素,构建区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合作用的研究框架。

2 区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合系统及其要素解析

水、土、能、碳不仅是地球表层系统的关键要素,也是自然和社会经济生活的重要资源基础。“水”是生命活动必需的物质和介质,也是大部分产业生产过程的原料;“土”是各种人类活动的基础和场所,也是植物生长的养分来源;“能”是生命活动与经济社会运行的动力源;“碳”既是生物体和主要能源的物质基础,也是人类各种社会经济活动的排放和代谢产物。水、土、能三种资源的开发利用相互联系、相互作用,并带来了大量碳排放。由于区域系统十分复杂,具有较大的空间异质性,因此区域不同自然和社会地域、不同产业具有不同的水、土、能的组合关系和碳排放强度。
显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT
图1区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合作用系统[4, 7]
-->Fig. 1Regional water-land-energy-carbon coupling interaction system
-->

水、土、能、碳四大要素涵盖了区域人类活动的原料、场所、动力及影响(图1),并以水循环、土地利用活动(产业活动或其他社会经济活动)、能量流通、碳循环等形式构成了区域社会经济系统的主要内容,即区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合系统。该系统既体现了地表四大圈层(水圈、岩石圈、生物圈和大气圈)的相互作用,也是“自然—经济—社会”巨系统功能和过程的集中表现。其中,“水—土—能”是区域资源系统的核心,这三种资源及其支撑生态系统构成了人类经济社会发展的基础,它们通过人类社会经济活动与自然生态系统之间的“供给—需求”关系而相互耦合、相互联系;它们之间的相互作用存在着复杂的非线性和反馈关系,这主要取决于各要素的位置、数量、质量、组合特征及其时空格局。该系统涵盖自然和“社会—经济”系统,因此要素之间的相互作用也具有明显的“二元”特征。同时,“水—土—能”系统也具有明显的地域分异特征,在不同状态的资源供给和需求条件下,以及不同的人类活动强度影响下,各要素作用机制、强度和过程明显不同,这进一步影响了系统的功能及其碳排放特征[4]。“水—土—能”系统代表了 “社会—经济—环境”巨系统的基础要素,水土关系、土能关系和水能关系分别构成了社会、经济和环境系统的主体。而碳排放表示人类社会对环境的影响。因此,区域“水—土—能—碳”的耦合作用不仅反映了区域各种资源匹配关系和开发利用效率,而且体现了人类社会对环境的影响程度。该系统的功能、过程和效率受政府管制、社会经济发展、全球化和技术创新等因素的影响,并随着社会经济的发展不断演化。“水—土—能—碳”系统格局、功能和过程的改变体现了区域资源赋存、经济社会活动方式、产业结构等条件的改变。研究的最终目标是通过对区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合系统的调控,实现能源、土地和食物安全、区域社会的公平持续发展和生态系统的自我修复,从而实现区域水土能资源高效利用、碳减排和社会生产优化的目标。

3 区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合作用研究进展

近年来,国内外的水、土、能等资源开发与碳排放的关系研究,主要有以下方面:

3.1 区域“水—碳”耦合研究进展

区域“水—碳”耦合研究主要包括两个方面:一是陆地生态系统的碳水耦合研究。陆地生态系统碳水循环是地球陆地表层系统物质循环与能量交换的基本生物物理过程。近年来,国内外不少****基于涡度相关技术等陆地生态系统通量观测方法对全球或区域尺度生态系统的碳水通量进行了研究[8-11],如针对森林[11-12]、农田[13]、山区[14]以及人工林[15]等生态系统碳水耦合的案例研究。陆地生态系统碳水通量变化是理解生态系统碳水循环的关键,这对于了解植物生产力及其水分利用效率具有重要的意义;二是内陆水体碳排放通量及其变化特征分析。国外****基于水体采样数据或相关研究的参数对全球内陆水体的碳(或温室气体)排放进行了核算分析[16],重点是针对内陆水库的研究[17],结果发现,水体是重要的温室气体排放源之一,其中水库温室气体排放占全球内陆水域碳排放的4%[18]。国内****也开展了对水库[19-20]、城市河流[21]等水体碳排放通量及季节变化特征的监测研究。总体而言,由于不涉及人为“能源”要素的参与,区域“水—碳”耦合主要以自然过程的生态系统碳水通量及水体碳排放研究为主,微观尺度多采用自然科学的通量监测及实验分析的方法;而宏观尺度主要是通过采样数据或估测模型来开展研究。

3.2 区域“水—能—碳”耦合研究进展

近年来,“能源”要素被引入到“水—碳”耦合研究[22]中,特别是增加了对水资源开发利用过程中能源消费碳排放的关注。主要包括三个方面:① 基于能源消费的区域水系统的碳排放研究。从“水—能—碳”耦合的角度,国内外****开展了国家[23]和城市尺度[1, 24]水系统碳排放的核算研究,结果发现,从水的抽取、运输、使用到废水处理等各个环节都会产生碳排放,其中,居民使用、废水处理环节的碳排放较多。另外,“水—能—碳”耦合也被应用于区域水资源合理配置[25]及碳水资源规划管理[26]的实践中,并尝试开展了生态系统服务功能评价及低碳水资源优化配置方案的应用研究。② 典型行业(或部门)水资源开发利用的碳排放研究。比如,国内外****基于动力消耗、灌溉等过程的能源消耗,对中国不同省区[27]、甘肃省民勤县[28]等地区农业水资源开发利用过程的碳排放进行了核算,进而探讨了水资源开发利用对环境的影响及适应气候变化的对策,研究发现农业温室气体排放占中国碳排放总量的17%~20%[27],其中地下水的温室气体排放占农业水资源碳排放的65%~88%[28]。部分****也开展了对制造业水、能、碳足迹的生态效率[29]及水修复过程的碳足迹[30]的研究,结果发现,由于水、能源、资源投入和碳排放强度的不同,不同行业的生态效率具有较大的差异[29];发电是各类水生产过程中温室气体排放的主要来源[30]。③ 农作物水、碳、能通量的耦合研究。与自然植被不同,农业生产需要大量的人工辅助能的投入,这为研究自然和社会交叉的“水—能—碳”的耦合关系提供了重要条件。Kothavala等[31]以加拿大土地表层计划(Canadian Land Surface Scheme, CLASS)为依托对普通作物的能源、水蒸气和碳通量进行了模拟;Zhang等[32]对华北平原灌溉梨园的水能碳通量进行了综合研究,结果发现,农作物碳通量强度在很大程度上受水能通量的影响。这在微观尺度上为农业生产过程中水、能、碳效率研究提供了重要的方法参考。

3.3 区域“土—碳”耦合研究进展

区域“土—碳”耦合研究是近年来土壤学和生态学的重要研究方向之一。土地利用不仅改变土壤的碳通量,而且影响区域陆地生态系统的碳收支状况。① 土地利用变化与土壤碳通量研究。土地利用不仅改变地表覆盖,而且通过影响土壤理化性质和微生物活性改变土壤的碳通量[33]。近年来,国内外出现了大量针对土地利用与土壤碳通量的关系研究,结果发现,草地转化为农田一般会增加土壤碳通量[34],湿地转化为其他土地利用类型也会增加土壤的碳通量[35];而森林转化为农田可能会造成土壤碳通量的增加[36]或减少[37],这种差异主要与区域的气候条件和农田管理措施有关[38]。另外,与自然植被转化为农田不同,耕地恢复为林地或草地则会减少土壤碳通量,退耕还林还草使土壤碳储量分别增加18%和19%,农田转变为次生林使土壤碳储量增加53%[39]。其中,不同的管理措施是造成土地利用变化后土壤碳通量差异的根本原因[35]。② 土地利用对区域自然生态系统碳平衡的影响。土地利用活动如城市化过程、森林砍伐、农业耕作、土地废弃等对区域陆地生态系统碳收支产生重要影响[40-41]。总体而言,土地利用/覆被变化导致的净碳排放占1990-2010年全球人类活动碳排放的12.5%[42]。但不同土地利用方式对区域碳收支的影响具有明显的差异。其中,城市化[43-44]和森林砍伐[45]是造成区域碳排放的重要因素;而合理的土地管理措施(如农林活动)等则会增加生态系统的碳蓄积[46]。比如,19世纪80年代,美国土地管理所带来的碳汇抵消了美国化石燃料碳排放的10%~30%[40];20世纪70年代以来,中国土地利用活动(特别人工造林)引起的陆地生态系统碳吸收大约为0.45 Pg C[47]

3.4 区域“土—能—碳”耦合研究进展

区域“土—能—碳”的耦合是目前国内外研究的一个热点领域。土地利用是全球气候变化和碳循环的重要影响因素[45],土地利用变化不仅改变自然碳循环过程,而且通过改变人为能源消费强度影响区域碳循环的速率[48]。“土—能—碳”耦合主要从两个角度开展:一是土地利用、能源消费与碳收支的关系研究,重点在于借助土地利用和能源消费数据,分析不同土地利用方式的碳排放效应。比如,不少****基于土地利用角度,通过对国家[40, 45, 49]、区域[50-51]或城市[3, 52]等尺度不同土地利用方式的自然碳收支和人类活动能源消费碳排放的核算,探讨了人类土地利用活动对区域碳收支的影响。研究发现,居民点及工矿用地和交通用地的扩展带来的能源消费的增加是造成碳排放大幅增长的主要原因。二是基于低碳目标的土地利用优化调控研究。土地利用低碳调控能在一定程度改变土地利用的碳源/汇格局[53],实质上是通过调整土地利用结构、方式、规模和强度,进而改变不同土地利用方式的能源消费强度来实现的[54]。近年来,国内****从国家、省及城市、县域等不同尺度层面开展了土地利用的低碳优化和调控研究,为区域土地利用总体规划提供了实践指导。如对全国[49, 55]、江苏省[56-57]、南京市[58]、泰兴市[59]、通榆县[60]及典型土地整理区[61]等开展了土地利用结构的低碳优化研究,提出了土地利用优化方案,指导了区域低碳土地利用规划实践,并推动了区域“土—能—碳”耦合研究的进一步深化。

3.5 区域“能—碳”耦合研究进展

近年来,国内外关于“能—碳”耦合的研究较多。如果不考虑其他要素,“能—碳”耦合研究主要是侧重于社会生产和消费领域的研究,重点包括两个方面:① 能源消费碳排放的核算研究。比如针对国家或地区碳排放清单核算[2, 62]、以及城市[63]、典型产业[64-65]、居民生活[66]、交通[67-68]等的能源消费碳排放的研究较多,并开展了能源消费碳排放的区域格局[69]、影响机制[70-71]、趋势预测[72]及情景模拟[73]等的研究,研究发现,由于不同区域经济规模与水平、能源消费效率与强度、产业结构等差异明显,能源消费的碳排放强度及其构成具有较大的区域差异。这对于了解不同区域碳排放的结构、格局和未来趋势提供了基础,并为区域低碳模式选择提供了重要参考;② 能源流通、转移与碳排放的关系研究。对省区[74-75]、城市[76-77]和城乡之间[78]的碳流通和转移的研究发现,区域之间的能源流通和贸易是造成碳转移的主要原因,能源流通的强度决定了隐含碳转移的规模和效率;城市内部各部门之间的能源流通、加工转换与损失等过程是造成城市内部碳流通的主要原因。总体而言,“能—碳”耦合有大量的案例研究,这里不再一一列举。而与其他要素的结合并进一步分析资源综合开发的碳排放效率是今后研究的趋势。

3.6 区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合关系的探索研究

近年来,国内外也逐渐从生态系统服务功能、粮食安全和气候变化等角度开展了区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合关系的探索研究。例如,Fang等[79]综合分析了生态足迹、能源足迹、碳足迹和水足迹的联系和区别,并提出了足迹“家族”集成研究的设想;Watanabe等[5]对基于能值分析方法对土地利用变化对巴西热带稀疏草原区碳水生态系统服务的影响进行了分析,结果发现,由于人类活动的扰动,传统耕作方式下的碳水生态系统服务功能是最低的;Ringler等[6]从提高资源利用效率的视角提出了“水—能—土—食物”(WELF)交叉研究的思路;美国能源局[4]开展了“水—土—能”系统与气候变化的关系研究,认为“水—土—能”系统耦合研究能够更深入地了解气候变化的机制,并以美国为例分析了水土能系统在气候减缓和适应中的作用;Felzer等[80]基于区域角度,开展了美国宾夕法尼亚州碳、氮、水循环及其对气候和土地利用变化的响应研究;Ababaei等[81]开展了适应气候变化的水土资源策略评价规划支持系统的开发与应用研究。另外,“水—土—能—碳”耦合也有微观层面的研究,如Rajan等[82]采用涡度相关法,以美国西南部棉花种植区为例,对生物燃料引起的土地利用变化对水、能、碳和温室气体平衡的影响进行了研究,并认为灌溉条件和蒸散作用是造成不同作物能源通量和碳吸收差异的主要因素。
国内外不同要素耦合作用的案例研究说明(表1),地表要素之间的耦合作用机制以及人类活动的影响受到科学界的关注,但对于系统耦合作用规律的研究还需进一步深化。
Tab. 1
表1
表1区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合的典型案例研究
Tab. 1Typical case studies of regional water-land-energy-carbon nexus
研究类别研究核心内容方法区域年份作者
“水—碳”耦合陆地生态系统的碳水耦合通量观测和模拟江西千烟洲2012任小丽等[15]
水体的碳释放样点监测与模拟全球2013Raymond等[16]
“水—能—碳”耦合区域水系统与碳排放物质流和生命周期分析多伦多等4个城市2014Venkatesh等[1]
农业水资源开发利用的碳排放样点调查和估算方法中国2012Wang等[27]
农作物“水—碳—能”通量涡度相关法加拿大2005Kothavala等[31]
“土—碳”耦合土地利用与土壤碳通量碳通量观测美国加利福尼亚2006Carlisle等[37]
土地利用与生态系统碳收支参数估算法美国1999Houghton等[40]
“土—能—碳”耦合土地利用、能源消费与碳排放温室气体清单巴基斯坦2012Ali等[3]
面向低碳的土地利用调控线性规划中国2011赖力等[49]
“能—碳”耦合能源消费碳排放的核算温室气体清单全球2010Kennedy等[2]
能源流通与隐含碳转移隐含碳分析南京市2014Zhao等[78]
“水—土—能—碳”耦合“水—土—能—碳”系统与生态系统服务能值分析方法巴西2014Watanabe等[5]
“水—土—能—碳”和气候变化关系系统分析方法美国2012Skaggs等[4]


新窗口打开

4 区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合作用分析

本文侧重于对宏观尺度区域地表诸要素之间的作用机制的探讨,暂不涉及植被生产过程的水能碳生理生态过程或水气界面的“水能碳”耦合作用关系。

4.1 区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合作用机制分析

从水、土、能资源相互作用的角度,可以将区域分为三个相互联系、相互作用的子系统:水系统、土地系统和能源系统。水系统主要包括引水、储水、制水、输水、用水及污水处理等不同的环节;土地系统包括各种土地利用类型,即生产用地、生活用地和生态用地(具体地类可依据自然土地覆被类型与人类活动方式细分);能源系统包括能源开采、能源加工、能源输送和能源消费等环节。三个子系统通过人类社会经济活动而相互联系、互为资源,共同构成了区域“水—土—能”资源系统。水系统为土地系统供应生产、生活和生态用水,为能源系统提供冷却、加工等用水;能源系统为水系统的引水、输水及水处理环节提供能源,为土地系统的人类社会经济活动提供各类能源需求;土地系统为水系统和能源系统的储存、加工和输送等环节提供土地条件和场所。因此,该系统的土地利用、能源开采与消费、水资源开发等不同环节都会产生碳排放(图2)。
显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT
图2“水—土—能—碳”耦合作用机制分析
-->Fig. 2The mechanism of water-land-energy-carbon coupling interaction
-->

Tab. 2
表2
表2“水—土—能”耦合作用及其与碳排放的关系
Tab. 2Water-land-energy coupling interaction and its relationship with carbon emissions
耦合关系需求种类主要环节[4]碳排放
水土关系水资源开发对土地的需求流域集水/蓄水工程、地表覆被工程、生态系统保护与建设。水利工程及生态保护工程的直接和间接的碳排放。
土地开发对水的需求生态系统保护、农作物生产、畜牧业、采矿业、工业、市政、商业及生活用水。不同土地利用方式下的水资源开发的碳排放;土地开发导致的直接碳排放。
土能关系土地开发对能源的需求土地开发、交通建设、经济生活、资源开发与利用。土地开发过程中能源消费的碳排放;土地开发导致的直接碳排放;资源开发过程中能源消费的碳排放;各项经济活动能源消费的碳排放。
能源开发对土地的需求能源基础设施建设、水利工程、矿山开采、电厂、太阳能和风能工厂、输电线路建设、输油管道、铁路、精炼厂/炼油厂、生物能源及生物燃料生产、碳捕获与封存、能源矿床开发。能源基地及能源基础设施建设活动中的碳排放;能源开采和运输过程中的碳泄露;土地利用方式变化的直接碳排放。
水能关系水资源开发对能源的需求抽水、输水、水资源调节及污水处理。水资源开发过程中能源消费的碳排放;污水处理过程的碳排放。
能源开发对水的需求能源开发与提取、冷却、加工、碳捕获与封存等过程。能源开发用水过程中能源消耗的碳排放。


新窗口打开
区域“水—土—能”系统的碳排放强度主要取决于子系统之间相互需求的类型、产业活动方式以及能源类型和结构等因素。① 三个子系统之间相互需求的类型和强度有所不同,相应的碳排放强度也有所区别(表2)。比如:土地利用和水资源开发对能源的需求较大,因此也具有较高的碳排放强度;② 水资源开发、土地占用和能源投入的组合关系在不同产业也具有较大的差异。比如,第一产业一般水资源和土地资源需求量大,但能源投入相对较少;第二产业能源和水资源需求量大,而对土地资源的需求相对较少。各类资源的需求及其组合在不同行业之间的差异,导致不同产业用地的直接和间接碳排放强度明显不同,这造成了区域碳排放及其效率的产业差异;③ 水土资源不同利用环节能源投入的类型和强度不同(如电能、煤炭、石油和天然气等的不同组合),在很大程度上影响了区域人类活动的碳排放强度。

4.2 基于不同视角的区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合关系分析

区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合作用可以从不同的角度来理解,本文主要从微观角度、产业活动、土地利用等不同视角来分析其耦合作用机制。
4.2.1 微观视角 微观视角主要是指农业生产过程中“水—土—能—碳”的耦合。农业生产涵盖水资源开发、土地利用及人工能源投入等不同的过程,其主要环节如下:① 水资源开发和利用过程。农业生产水资源的开发利用(如引水、蓄水、输水及灌溉等)过程既需要占用土地资源,又需要人类辅助能的投入,并因此带来一定的碳排放;② 土地开发与利用。土地开发、翻耕、灌溉、除草、收获等不同环节,需要水、能资源的投入,并产生相应的碳排放;③ 能源生产与投入。农业能源投入包含太阳能和人工能源两种,其中以太阳能为主,人工能源的投入主要集中在水资源利用、土地开发与耕种、肥料生产等环节;④ 农作物生长过程中的碳交换。除人为过程带来的碳排放以外,作物光合作用会带来一定的碳吸收,同时,农作物与土壤之间也存在着碳交换。以上4个环节共同构成了农业生产中“水—土—能—碳”耦合作用过程(图3)。
显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT
图3微观视角的“水—土—能—碳”的耦合作用
-->Fig. 3Regional water-land-energy-carbon coupling interaction from a microscopic view
-->

4.2.2 产业活动视角 基于产业生命周期的角度,从原料开采、运输、仓储、加工、产品生产、销售和废弃物处理等不同的环节都需要投入大量的能源和水资源,并占用一定的土地空间;区域产业类型复杂多样,不同产业活动下水、土、能耦合作用方式和强度不同。土地具有生产和承载的双重功能,作为生产功能的产业活动(如农业、工业生产等),一般具有较大的需水量;而作为承载功能的产业活动(如商业、市政服务等),一般具有较大的能源需求。因此,产业活动既有能源消费的直接碳排放,也有土地开发、占用和水处理过程中的虚拟碳排放(间接碳排放),只是不同产业类型的碳排放强度及构成有所差异。因此,从产业层面开展“水—土—能—碳”的耦合机制分析,要注意以下几个环节:① 产业全生命周期过程中能源消费的直接碳排放;② 因产业活动对水资源的需求而带来的水资源开发、供应和处理等过程中的能源消费的碳排放;③ 产业活动过程中土地占用和开发带来的能源消费的碳排放;④ 土地利用变化带来的直接碳排放;⑤ 产业活动及其能源供应中水土资源的消耗及强度(图4)。
显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT
图4产业活动生命周期过程中“水—土—能—碳”耦合作用机制
-->Fig. 4Water-land-energy-carbon coupling interaction of regional industrial activities
-->

4.2.3 土地利用视角 人类主要的社会经济活动都与土地利用密切相关。因此,对任何一种人类活动方式而言,从土地平整、开发到土地生产和废弃等不同的环节都有一定的水、能资源的消耗(图5)。从土地利用视角分析“水—土—能—碳”的耦合关系,要注意两点:一是要区分不同的土地利用类型,并分析不同土地利用方式下土地利用全生命周期过程中的水能投入及其组合关系。比如:对农业活动而言,能源投入主要是土地平整、耕种、灌溉、收获等过程的农业机械能及电能的使用,水资源的投入主要是灌溉用水;对工业活动而言,能源投入主要包括厂房建设、原料及产品运输、工业生产及运营等过程中的能源消耗,水资源的投入主要是工业生产用水或冷却用水;对城市建设活动来讲,水能投入主要是土地开发、城市建设和建筑物运行等过程中的水、能资源的消耗;二是开展不同土地利用方式下的水能利用效率和碳排放效率的关系研究,从而对不同土地利用活动的资源利用效率和环境影响进行综合评估,以便确定不同人类经济活动下的适度的土地利用及资源开发强度。
显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT
图5土地利用过程的“水—土—能—碳”耦合作用机制
-->Fig. 5Water-land-energy-carbon coupling interaction of regional land use processes
-->

4.3 区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合作用的影响机制分析

区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合作用系统主要受自然因素、经济因素、社会因素和压力因素等的影响(图6)。
显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT
图6区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合作用的影响机制
-->Fig. 6Impacting mechanism of regional water-land-energy-carbon coupling interaction
-->

(1)自然因素:要素条件和环境变迁。自然要素条件决定了区域水、土、能等各项资源的赋存条件和分布格局,要素条件的改变会影响区域资源的供给及其组合关系;环境变迁可能会改变区域的地表水和地下水资源分布格局、土地适宜性或生态系统格局的改变,这都会造成区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合作用关系的改变。
(2)经济因素:经济发展、产业结构、生产效率和技术水平。经济因素是区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合作用的决定性因素。总体而言,区域经济发展水平决定了区域水、土、能资源消耗的强度和碳排放强度;产业结构决定了“水—土—能—碳”耦合作用的基本空间格局和要素组合关系;而生产效率和技术水平则决定了区域资源耦合作用效率和碳排放效率。
(3)社会因素:政府政策、社会影响和公众态度。政府通过区域产业布局、水土资源开发与规划管理、新能源开发与利用、环境保护政策、生态建设等对“水—土—能—碳”耦合作用系统产生影响;社会影响和公众态度主要是通过社会、企业和个人的环保意识来达到资源节约的目的,能在一定程度上降低“水—土—能—碳”耦合作用系统对区域自然环境的影响。
(4)压力因素:主要是指气候变化与人口增长[83]。人口增长会导致水、土、能资源需求的增长,并进一步加大区域自然环境的压力;另外,气候变化也会改变区域“水—土—能—碳”系统的结构和功能,比如气候变化通过改变水循环影响水利发电、城市及工农业生活用水;气候变化带来的干旱化会导致农业生产的水资源短缺,从而需要更多的能源来保证水源的供应;极端气候事件会破坏水—能基础设施,影响区域水、能资源的正常供应[4]。这些都会在长时期内影响区域“水—土—能—碳”系统的结构和承载能力。

5 结论与研究展望

5.1 结论

(1)区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合作用系统不仅体现了地表系统四大圈层的作用,更以水循环、土地利用、能量流通、碳循环的形式构成了区域“自然—经济—社会”的核心内容,该系统不仅反映了区域不同资源类型的匹配关系和开发利用效率,也体现了人类社会对环境的影响程度;
(2)该系统可以分为三个相互联系、相互作用的子系统:水系统、土地系统和能源系统,它们之间通过不同途径相互联系、互为资源,共同构成了区域社会经济发展的资源基础,而区域碳排放强度则主要取决于水、土、能等要素之间相互需求的类型、产业活动方式和能源类型与结构等;
(3)区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合作用机制可以从微观角度、产业活动、土地利用等不同视角来分析;
(4)区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合作用系统主要受自然、经济、社会和压力等因素的影响,其中经济因素,特别是经济发展水平、生产效率和技术水平是系统功能和效率的决定性要素。

5.2 与相关研究的联系和区别

① 区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合研究与传统的“物质—能量”循环研究有所差别。近年来,物质—能量循环、经济社会能值与物质流分析等研究也较多,但这些研究一方面主要以单一资源或能源的循环流通为研究对象,另一方面较少涉及碳排放过程,而“水—土—能—碳”研究不仅强调多种资源之间的耦合机制,也以碳排放为评估手段突出了资源耦合开发的环境效应。因此,与“物质—能量”循环相比,“水—土—能—碳”耦合研究更加综合、集成,也更利于深入开展不同区域、行业和土地利用方式之间资源能源利用效率的对比研究;② 区域“水—土—能—碳”与“生态服务”、“资源承载力”、“生态足迹”研究不同。区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合更强调评估资源耦合开发的效率和人类活动的环境影响;“生态服务”与“资源承载力”研究相似,重点评价区域自然环境和资源对人类经济社会发展的支撑能力;“生态足迹”则通过生态占用指标来衡量人类活动对生态环境影响的程度。因此,区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合实际上代表了区域不同类型资源的生态供应、资源组合开发效率及其开发过程的生态足迹的集成研究;③ 区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合研究以其综合集成的研究特点,能够更好地应用于当前的生态文明建设、城市建设及区域规划实践中。比如:可结合区域水、土、能资源的赋存和组合特点,开展不同区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合系统的运行效率及脆弱性(敏感性)评价,据此进行区域“生态红线”、“湿地红线”及水资源“三条红线”的划定,并作为开展主体功能区规划和区域发展战略制定的依据;对城市规划与建设而言,应在多要素评价和分析的基础上,尽可能恢复城区“水—土—能—碳”系统的自然过程和功能,减少人为环节对系统的干扰,这也是当前建设“海绵城市”的要求,即尽可能发挥自然要素的作用和功能;同样,也可以从“水—土—能—碳”的关系入手,开展不同区域、产业或土地利用方式的资源开发效率的定量评估,为区域土地利用规划、产业规划中的资源节约、环境影响评价和碳减排提供实践指导。
因此,区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合既体现了地表多要素的相互关系,也是“自然—社会—经济”巨系统功能和过程的集中表现;不仅是前期的“物质—能量循环”、“生态足迹”、“资源承载力”、“生态服务”等研究的综合集成,也从实践角度切合了区域资源综合承载力、应对气候变化能力及可持续发展水平评估的研究趋势。

5.3 研究展望

未来的区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合研究应在以下方面进一步加强:
(1)区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合系统模拟研究。从系统内部不同要素的耦合作用机理入手,分析区域不同产业、不同土地利用及人类经济活动方式下的“水—土—能—碳”的供给和需求关系,从自然和“社会—经济”系统相互作用的角度建立区域“水—土—能—碳”系统耦合模拟模型,从区域整体角度探讨系统耦合作用的规律和机制,以及各要素的时空格局、组合特征和作用机理,并进一步评估对比不同区域 “水—土—能—碳”耦合系统的效率及其差异。
(2)区域“水—土—能—碳”耦合作用与气候变化和粮食安全的关系。气候变化及其减缓和适应是当前多学科研究的热点之一,区域“水—土—能—碳”系统不仅反映了区域各种资源匹配关系和开发利用效率,而且体现了人类社会对环境的影响程度。因此,开展“水—土—能—碳”对气候变化的影响与反馈机制,并将其与区域粮食生产与安全研究结合起来,对于建立合理的区域水土能资源开发模式具有重要的实践价值。
(3)区域“水—土—能”资源耦合开发的碳排放效率研究。“碳”是区域经济社会和生产过程的关键要素之一,与诸多资源、能源的开发过程密切相关。不同人类活动方式下的水、土、能资源的投入组合和开发利用强度具有明显的差异。因此,应从碳排放的角度分析区域“水—土—能”资源的耦合开发效率,有助于从生产的源头和资源耦合开发的角度综合评估区域人类活动应对气候变化的碳减排潜力,这对于推动资源节约和提高生产效率具有重要意义。
(4)区域“水—土—能—碳”系统的综合评估与调控研究。在水、土、能资源耦合开发的碳排放效率研究的基础上,从区域整体角度出发,开展区域“水—土—能—碳”系统承载力的综合评估,探讨区域不同产业、不同土地利用方式的“水—土—能—碳”综合开发效率和承载能力;并建立基于碳排放约束的区域“水—土—能”资源综合开发和优化调控方案。
The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

参考文献 原文顺序
文献年度倒序
文中引用次数倒序
被引期刊影响因子

[1]Venkatesh D, Chan A, Brattebo H.Understanding the water-energy-carbon nexus in urban water utilities: Comparison of four city case studies and the relevant influencing factors.
Energy, 2014,75: 153-166.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.06.111URLMagsci [本文引用: 3]摘要
Although it is not at once evident, water supply and sanitation services provided by urban water and wastewater utilities consume a considerable amount of energy. Energy is an operational sine qua non in water treatment and distribution, wastewater collection, and treatment prior to disposal. How does the urban environment influence the water-energy-carbon nexus? The authors have tried to answer this question by referring to four case studies - based on the cities of Nantes (France), Oslo (Norway), Turin (Italy) and Toronto (Canada). Climate, technology and geography, inter alia, play important roles in shaping the water-energy-carbon nexus in different parts of the world. On the basis of an understanding of these differences and their influences, the authors have attempted to provide directions for process, program and policy interventions. For instance, Nantes needs to make an effort to restrict the use of herbicides and pesticides in order to improve the quality of water in the river Loire and thereby reduce the energy demand for treating raw water. Turin is a part, would do well to invest in more efficient wastewater treatment facilities, thus reducing the energy burden significantly on the upstream, while incurring a higher demand on the downstream. (C) 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
[2]Kennedy C, Steinberger J, Gasson B, et al.Methodology for inventorying greenhouse gas emissions from global cities.
Energy Policy, 2010, 38: 4828-4837.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2009.08.050URLMagsci [本文引用: 3]摘要
<h2 class="secHeading" id="section_abstract">Abstract</h2><p id="">This paper describes the methodology and data used to determine greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions attributable to ten cities or city-regions: Los Angeles County, Denver City and County, Greater Toronto, New York City, Greater London, Geneva Canton, Greater Prague, Barcelona, Cape Town and Bangkok. Equations for determining emissions are developed for contributions from: electricity; heating and industrial fuels; ground transportation fuels; air and marine fuels; industrial processes; and waste. Gasoline consumption is estimated using three approaches: from local fuel sales; by scaling from regional fuel sales; and from counts of vehicle kilometres travelled. A simplified version of an intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPCC) method for estimating the GHG emissions from landfill waste is applied. Three measures of overall emissions are suggested: (i) actual emissions within the boundary of the city; (ii) single process emissions (from a life-cycle perspective) associated with the city's metabolism; and (iii) life-cycle emissions associated with the city's metabolism. The results and analysis of the study will be published in a second paper.</p>
[3]Ali G, Nitivattananon V.Exercising multidisciplinary approach to assess interrelationship between energy use, carbon emission and land use change in a metropolitan city of Pakistan.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2012, 16(1): 775-786.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2011.09.003URL [本文引用: 3]摘要
Population of two cities in Pakistan has already crossed the 10-million figure and for the rest of the areas in the country populations are also increasing rapidly. Urbanization has boosted the use of energy in the cities and so is greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions but the ground situation as to the extent, vulnerability, past trends and future scenarios are not unveiled for the cities of Pakistan. Dearth of data in Pakistan is a huge hindrance to the investigation of energy use and actual GHG emissions. We dared to take steps in addressing this case and put preliminary efforts in compiling baseline sectoral breakdown of energy use, carbon emission and land cover/land use. Furthermore, the relationship of CO 2 source and sink is also explored. This study mainly tries to achieve three objectives. The results illustrate that industrial and residential sectors are vibrant consumers of energy and CO 2 emitters among all other sectors of the city. Sparse trees in the city and reduced agriculture areas by more than one-half in 2009 compared with those in 1975 are the main reasons for increased energy use and reduced CO 2 emissions from agriculture sector as well. However, all the other sectors have increased their CO 2 emissions in an escalating trend. The forecast analysis portrays the same trend too. Therefore, there is a need to make policy makers recognize such vulnerable situation of energy use and GHG emissions for them to take proper and timely actions to cope with the threats of climate change which can occur anytime in the very near future.
[4]Skaggs R, Janetos T C.Climate and Energy-Water-Land System Interactions.
US Department of Energy, 2012.
https://doi.org/10.2172/1040680URL [本文引用: 7]摘要
This report provides a framework to characterize and understand the important elements of climate and energy-water-land (EWL) system interactions. It identifies many of the important issues, discusses our understanding of those issues, and presents a long-term research program research needs to address the priority scientific challenges and gaps in our understanding. Much of the discussion is organized around two discrete case studies with the broad themes of (1) extreme events and (2) regional intercomparisons. These case studies help demonstrate unique ways in which energy-water-land interactions can occur and be influenced by climate.
[5]Watanabe M D B, Ortega E. Dynamic emergy accounting of water and carbon ecosystem services: A model to simulate the impacts of land-use change.
Ecological Modelling, 2014, 271: 113-131.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2013.03.006URLMagsci [本文引用: 3]摘要
Expansion of agriculture over ecosystem areas is widely recognized as one of the most significant human alterations to the global environment over the last century. Although food and fiber production are essential ecosystem services (ES) to humankind, the clearing of forests for agricultural use is associated with changes in land cover which affect a wide range of ES at local, regional and global scales. Considering the importance of climate change, freshwater scarcity, soil erosion and other environmental issues, this paper aims to simulate the impact of land-use change on the ecosystem services related to water and carbon biogeochemical processes. The system under study is the Taquarizinho river basin, located in the eastern region of Mato Grosso do Sul State, Brazil, inserted in the upland borders of one of the largest wetland systems of the world, the Pantanal. Formerly occupied by Brazilian savannah (Cerrado), more than half of Taquarizinho watershed was converted both to agriculture and pasture lands since the 1960s. In order to quantify the impact of land-use change on ES provided by Taquarizinho over the years, this paper introduces the hydro-carbon model, which dynamically represents ecosystem services related to water and carbon cycles, such as canal discharge, groundwater recharge, evapotranspiration, biomass carbon sequestration, litter carbon sequestration, and soil carbon sequestration. The hydro-carbon model uses emergy for estimating the monetary value of ecosystem services provided by the river basin under different land-use scenarios. In this paper, extreme scenarios represent typical land-use types in Taquarizinho basin: native savanna (NS), agroforestry systems (AF), conventional tillage agriculture (CT), no-tillage multiple cropping agriculture (NT), degraded pastures (DP), and pastures under improved management (IP). Results in this paper reveal a hierarchy related to water and carbon ES provision, in descending order: native savanna (247 EM$ ha(-1) y(-1)), agroforestry system (204 EM$ ha(-1) y(-1)), pastures under improved management (180 EM$ ha(-1) y(-1)), no-tillage multiple cropping agriculture (160 EM$ ha(-1) y(-1)), degraded pastures (104 EM$ ha(-1) y(-1)) and conventional tillage agriculture (75 EM$ ha(-1) y(-1)). (C) 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
[6]Ringler C, Bhaduri A, Lawford R.The nexus across water, energy, land and food (WELF): Potential for improved resource use efficiency?
Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2013, 5: 617-624.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2013.11.002URLMagsci [本文引用: 2]摘要
Water, land and energy resources are all crucial contributors to food security. As a result of growing natural resource scarcity, the inter-connectedness of these sectors has become more apparent, as evidenced by growing tradeoffs and the incipient search for cross-sector efficiencies. Proactive engagement by the water, energy, land and food (WELF) sectors with important roles for national governments and international bodies is required to holistically assess and promote investment options that co-balance benefits across different sectors. Nexus assessments need to consider both human well-being and environmental outcomes, that is, the environment has to have 'a seat at the table' for nexus analyses. Outcomes must also be evaluated for the poor, whose well-being is tightly interrelated but often in conflict with maintaining environmental integrity. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) represent a globally significant test for the implementation of nexus thinking.
[7]Fais B, Mourao Z S, Konadu D, et al..URL [本文引用: 1]
[8]Sus O, Heuer M W, Meyers T P W, et al. A data assimilation framework for constraining upscaled cropland carbon flux seasonality and biometry with MODIS.
Biogeosciences, 2013, 10(4): 2451-2466.
https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-10-2451-2013Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
Agroecosystem models are strongly dependent on information on land management patterns for regional applications. Land management practices play a major role in determining global yield variability, and add an anthropogenic signal to the observed seasonality of atmospheric CO2 concentrations. However, there is still little knowledge on spatial and temporal variability of important farmland activities such as crop sowing dates, and thus these remain rather crudely approximated within carbon cycle studies.<br/>In this study, we present a framework allowing for spatiotemporally resolved simulation of cropland carbon fluxes under observational constraints on land management and canopy greenness. We apply data assimilation methodology in order to explicitly account for information on sowing dates and model leaf area index. MODIS 250m vegetation index data were assimilated both in batch-calibration for sowing date estimation and sequentially for improved model state estimation, using the ensemble Kalman filter (EnKF), into a crop carbon mass balance model (SPAc). In doing so, we are able to quantify the multiannual (2000-2006) regional carbon flux and biometry seasonality of maize-soybean crop rotations surrounding the Bondville Ameriflux eddy covariance site, averaged over 104 pixel locations within the wider area.<br/>(1) Validation at the Bondville site shows that growing season C cycling is simulated accurately with MODIS-derived sowing dates, and we expect that this framework allows for accurate simulations of C cycling at locations for which ground-truth data are not available. Thus, this framework enables modellers to simulate current (i.e. last 10 yr) carbon cycling of major agricultural regions. Averaged over the 104 field patches analysed, relative spatial variability for biometry and net ecosystem exchange ranges from similar to 7% to similar to 18 %. The annual sign of net biome productivity is not significantly different from carbon neutrality. (2) Moreover, observing carbon cycling at one single field with its individual sowing pattern is not sufficient to constrain large-scale agroecosystem carbon flux seasonality. Study area average growing season length is 20 days longer than observed at Bondville, primarily because of an earlier estimated start of season. (3) For carbon budgeting, additional information on cropland soil management and belowground carbon cycling has to be considered, as such constraints are not provided by MODIS.
[9]Baldocchi D D, Falge E.FLUXNET: A new tool to study the temporal and spatial variability of ecosystem-scale carbon dioxide, water vapor, and energy flux densities.
Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 2001, 82: 2415-2434.

[10]Yu Guirui, Gao Yang, Wang Qiufeng, et al.Discussion on the key processes of carbon-nitrogen-water coupling cycles and biological regulation mechanisms in terrestrial ecosystem. Chinese Journal of
Eco-Agriculture, 2013, 21(1): 1-13.
https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1011.2013.00001URL摘要
陆地生态系统碳循环、氮循环和水循环是全球变化科学研究的三大主题,而陆地生态系统碳氮水耦合循环过程及其生物调控机制则是全球变化生态学研究的前沿性科学问题。目前,对陆地生态系统碳氮水耦合循环过程及其调控机制认识的不足是制约评估陆地增汇/减排效果,预测分析全球变化对生态系统生产力和固碳功能影响的瓶颈性问题。本文在综合分析陆地生态系统碳氮水循环的耦合过程基础上,论述了制约生态系统碳氮水循环空间格局耦联关系的生物地理学机制,制约典型生态系统碳氮水循环耦合关系的生物生理生态学机制,以及典型生态系统碳氮水耦合循环的关键生物物理和生物化学过程。重点评述了生态系统碳氮水耦合循环的主要过程及其生物调控机制研究进展,包括:(1)植物叶片冠层生物学过程和根系冠层生物学过程及其对生态系统碳氮水耦合循环控制机制,以及二者之间的关联与互作关系;(2)土壤微生物功能群网络及其对碳氮循环过程的影响;(3)生态系统碳氮水交换通量的时空变化规律,以及生态系统的生态化学计量学理论与实践。本文最后还简要介绍了国家基金委重大研究项目"森林生态系统碳氮水耦合循环的生物控制机制"的研究思路及其主要研究内容。期望能够通过这些探讨对推动我国该研究领域的基础理论建设和新技术发展有所贡献。
[于贵瑞, 高扬, 王秋凤, . 陆地生态系统碳—氮—水循环的关键耦合过程及其生物调控机制探讨
. 中国生态农业学报, 2013, 21(1): 1-13.]
https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1011.2013.00001URL摘要
陆地生态系统碳循环、氮循环和水循环是全球变化科学研究的三大主题,而陆地生态系统碳氮水耦合循环过程及其生物调控机制则是全球变化生态学研究的前沿性科学问题。目前,对陆地生态系统碳氮水耦合循环过程及其调控机制认识的不足是制约评估陆地增汇/减排效果,预测分析全球变化对生态系统生产力和固碳功能影响的瓶颈性问题。本文在综合分析陆地生态系统碳氮水循环的耦合过程基础上,论述了制约生态系统碳氮水循环空间格局耦联关系的生物地理学机制,制约典型生态系统碳氮水循环耦合关系的生物生理生态学机制,以及典型生态系统碳氮水耦合循环的关键生物物理和生物化学过程。重点评述了生态系统碳氮水耦合循环的主要过程及其生物调控机制研究进展,包括:(1)植物叶片冠层生物学过程和根系冠层生物学过程及其对生态系统碳氮水耦合循环控制机制,以及二者之间的关联与互作关系;(2)土壤微生物功能群网络及其对碳氮循环过程的影响;(3)生态系统碳氮水交换通量的时空变化规律,以及生态系统的生态化学计量学理论与实践。本文最后还简要介绍了国家基金委重大研究项目"森林生态系统碳氮水耦合循环的生物控制机制"的研究思路及其主要研究内容。期望能够通过这些探讨对推动我国该研究领域的基础理论建设和新技术发展有所贡献。
[11]Shi Tingting, Gao Yufang, Yuan Fenghui, et al.Simulation of CO2 and H2O fluxes over temperate mixed forest and sensitivity analysis of layered methods: stomatal conductance-photosynthesis-energy balance coupled model.
Acta Ecologica Sinica, 2012, 32(15): 4630-4640.
https://doi.org/10.5846/stxb201107281106Magsci [本文引用: 2]摘要
利用Leuning建立的耦合的光合作用、气孔导度和能量平衡方程,以将冠层分成多层的方式,包括Gaussian五点积分法、将冠层平均分为多层的方法,逐层计算温带混交林的碳水通量,最后累加至冠层尺度,以模拟CO<sub>2</sub>和H<sub>2</sub>O通量。该模型以常规气象观测数据作为驱动变量,计算出冠层与大气之间的碳水交换,与涡动相关系统的通量观测数据进行比较,分析了不同的冠层分层方式对多层模型模拟结果的影响。从3个温带混交林通量站涡动相关系统的能量平衡闭合度来看,中国长白山站CBS、韩国GDK和日本MMF站点的能量平衡比率(EBR)分别为0.76、0.66和1.07,居于国际同类观测范围(0.34-1.2)的中上水平,因此,涡动相关系统的观测数据较为可靠。从碳水通量的日变化来看,用Gaussian五点积分法将冠层分为五层的模型能较好的模拟碳水通量的"单峰形"日变化趋势。夜间<em>Fc</em>为负值且变化趋势较为平缓,表明生态系统进行呼吸作用释放CO<sub>2</sub>,从日出开始<em>Fc</em>逐渐变为正值,表明生态系统进行光合作用吸收CO<sub>2</sub>,<em>Fc</em>在中午时分达到最大值,下午<em>Fc</em>逐渐减小,日落之后又回复到夜间的负值。H<sub>2</sub>O通量的日变化曲线与CO<sub>2</sub>通量相似,且模拟值与涡动相关实测值具有较好的一致性。在多层模型中,对冠层采用不同的分层方法,对碳水通量模拟结果有一定的影响。以Gaussian五点积分法将冠层分为五层的方法作为对照,分别将冠层平均分为2、5、10、20层的方法得到的碳水通量与其进行比较。从平均值来看,分层越多,H<sub>2</sub>O通量模拟值越低,而CO<sub>2</sub>通量模拟值越高。不同的分层方法产生的差异,主要来自于不同层的辐射吸收、温湿度、风速等环境要素的垂直廓线差异,且叶片光合作用对光的响应是非线性的。
[施婷婷, 高玉芳, 袁凤辉, . 温带混交林碳水通量模拟及其对冠层分层方式的响应—耦合的气孔导度—光合作用—能量平衡模型
. 生态学报, 2012, 32(15): 4630-4640.]
https://doi.org/10.5846/stxb201107281106Magsci [本文引用: 2]摘要
利用Leuning建立的耦合的光合作用、气孔导度和能量平衡方程,以将冠层分成多层的方式,包括Gaussian五点积分法、将冠层平均分为多层的方法,逐层计算温带混交林的碳水通量,最后累加至冠层尺度,以模拟CO<sub>2</sub>和H<sub>2</sub>O通量。该模型以常规气象观测数据作为驱动变量,计算出冠层与大气之间的碳水交换,与涡动相关系统的通量观测数据进行比较,分析了不同的冠层分层方式对多层模型模拟结果的影响。从3个温带混交林通量站涡动相关系统的能量平衡闭合度来看,中国长白山站CBS、韩国GDK和日本MMF站点的能量平衡比率(EBR)分别为0.76、0.66和1.07,居于国际同类观测范围(0.34-1.2)的中上水平,因此,涡动相关系统的观测数据较为可靠。从碳水通量的日变化来看,用Gaussian五点积分法将冠层分为五层的模型能较好的模拟碳水通量的"单峰形"日变化趋势。夜间<em>Fc</em>为负值且变化趋势较为平缓,表明生态系统进行呼吸作用释放CO<sub>2</sub>,从日出开始<em>Fc</em>逐渐变为正值,表明生态系统进行光合作用吸收CO<sub>2</sub>,<em>Fc</em>在中午时分达到最大值,下午<em>Fc</em>逐渐减小,日落之后又回复到夜间的负值。H<sub>2</sub>O通量的日变化曲线与CO<sub>2</sub>通量相似,且模拟值与涡动相关实测值具有较好的一致性。在多层模型中,对冠层采用不同的分层方法,对碳水通量模拟结果有一定的影响。以Gaussian五点积分法将冠层分为五层的方法作为对照,分别将冠层平均分为2、5、10、20层的方法得到的碳水通量与其进行比较。从平均值来看,分层越多,H<sub>2</sub>O通量模拟值越低,而CO<sub>2</sub>通量模拟值越高。不同的分层方法产生的差异,主要来自于不同层的辐射吸收、温湿度、风速等环境要素的垂直廓线差异,且叶片光合作用对光的响应是非线性的。
[12]Song Chunlin, Sun Xiangyang, Wang Genxu.A review on carbon and water interactions of forest ecosystem and its impact factors.
Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology,2015, 26(9): 2891-2902.
Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
<p>森林生态系统的碳水关系是陆地生态系统碳循环和水循环相互耦合的作用过程,对研究森林碳汇、森林生态水文过程和全球变化响应有重要意义.在全球变化背景下,森林生态系统碳水关系已成为生态水文学领域中的一个热点科学问题.本文在总结国际上森林碳汇研究的基础上,概述了森林碳水关系的过程机制,包括森林水分利用效率、不同尺度上的碳水关系、尺度推绎和碳水关系的模拟研究方面的进展;总结了影响森林碳水关系的因子和研究进展,包括水分条件、CO<sub>2</sub>浓度升高、增温、氮沉降、臭氧浓度变化、辐射因子和海拔梯度因子对森林碳水关系的影响;最后对已有研究存在的问题进行了初步分析,并对未来研究内容和方向进行了展望.</p>
[宋春林, 孙向阳, 王根绪. 森林生态系统碳水关系及其影响因子研究进展
. 应用生态学报, 2015, 26(9): 2891-2902.]
Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
<p>森林生态系统的碳水关系是陆地生态系统碳循环和水循环相互耦合的作用过程,对研究森林碳汇、森林生态水文过程和全球变化响应有重要意义.在全球变化背景下,森林生态系统碳水关系已成为生态水文学领域中的一个热点科学问题.本文在总结国际上森林碳汇研究的基础上,概述了森林碳水关系的过程机制,包括森林水分利用效率、不同尺度上的碳水关系、尺度推绎和碳水关系的模拟研究方面的进展;总结了影响森林碳水关系的因子和研究进展,包括水分条件、CO<sub>2</sub>浓度升高、增温、氮沉降、臭氧浓度变化、辐射因子和海拔梯度因子对森林碳水关系的影响;最后对已有研究存在的问题进行了初步分析,并对未来研究内容和方向进行了展望.</p>
[13]Gervois S, Ciais P, Noblet-Ducoudré N, et al. Carbon and water balance of European croplands throughout the 20th century
. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 2008, 22, GB2022.doi: 10.1029/2007GB003018.
URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
We assessed the effects of rising atmospheric CO(2), changing climate, and farmers' practice on the carbon and water balance of European croplands during the past century (1901-2000). The coupled vegetation-crop model ORCHIDEE-STICS is applied over western Europe for C3 crops (winter wheat) and for maize, with prescribed historical agricultural practice changes. Not surprisingly, the enormous crop yield increase observed in all European regions, 300-400% between 1950 and 2000, is found to be dominantly explained by improved practice and varieties selection, rather than by rising CO(2) (explaining a similar to 11% uniform increase in yield) and changing climate (no further change in yield on average, but causing a decrease of similar to 19% in the southern Iberian Peninsula). Agricultural soil carbon stocks in Europe are modeled to have decreased between 1950 and 1970, and since then to have increased again. Thus, the current stocks only differ by 1 +/- 6 tC ha(-1) from their 1900 value. Compensating effects of increasing yields on the one hand (increasing stocks) and of higher harvest index values and ploughing on the other hand (decreasing stocks) occur. Each of these processes taken individually has the potential to strongly alter the croplands soil carbon balance in the model. Consequently, large uncertainties are associated to the estimated change in carbon stocks between 1901 and 2001, roughly +/- 6 tC ha(-1) a(-1). In our most realistic simulation, the current cropland carbon balance is a net sink of 0.16 +/- 0.15 tC ha(-1) a(-1). The annual water balance of cropland soils is influenced by increasing crop water use efficiency, one third of which is caused by rising CO(2). However, increasing water use efficiency occurred mainly in spring and winter, when water is not limiting for plant growth, whereas no strong savings of soil water are achieved in summer through elevated CO(2). Overall, trends in cultivation practices have caused a 3 times larger increase of water use efficiency than rising CO(2).
[14]Yu Guirui, Song Xia, Wang Qiufeng, et al.Water-use efficiency of forest ecosystems in eastern China and its relations to climatic variables.
New Phytologist, 2008, 177(4): 927-937.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.02316.xURLPMID:18069958 [本文引用: 1]摘要
Carbon (C) and water cycles of terrestrial ecosystems are two coupled ecological processes controlled partly by stomatal behavior. Water-use efficiency (WUE) reflects the coupling relationship to some extent. At stand and ecosystem levels, the variability of WUE results from the trade-off between water loss and C gain in the process of plant photosynthetic C assimilation. Continuous observations of C, water, and energy fluxes were made at three selected forest sites of ChinaFLUX with eddy covariance systems from 2003 to 2005. WUE at different temporal scales were defined and calculated with different C and water flux components. Variations in WUE were found among three sites. Average annual WUE was 9.43 mg CO(2) g(-1) H(2)O at Changbaishan temperate broad-leaved Korean pine mixed forest, 9.27 mg CO(2) g(-1) H(2)O at Qianyanzhou subtropical coniferous plantation, and 6.90 mg CO(2) g(-1) H(2)O at Dinghushan subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest. It was also found that temperate and subtropical forest ecosystems had different relationships between gross primary productivity (GPP) and evapotranspiration (ET). Variations in WUE indicated the difference in the coupling between C and water cycles. The asynchronous response of GPP and ET to climatic variables determined the coupling and decoupling between C and water cycles for the two regional forest ecosystems.
[15]Ren Xiaoli, He Honglin, Liu Min, et al.Modeling of carbon and water fluxes of Qianyanzhou subtropical coniferous plantation using model-data fusion approach.
Acta Ecologica Sinica, 2012, 32(23): 7313-7326.
https://doi.org/10.5846/stxb201203230397Magsci [本文引用: 2]摘要
人工林生态系统是我国森林生态系统的重要组成部分,在全球碳平衡中的作用越来越受到重视。利用千烟洲亚热带人工针叶林通量观测站的碳水通量和气象观测数据,通过模型数据融合方法对碳水循环过程模型——SIPNET模型关键参数进行反演,模拟了2004-2009年千烟洲人工林生态系统的碳水通量。结果表明:仅用碳通量观测数据优化模型参数时,净生态系统碳交换量(NEE)模拟效果较好(<em>R</em><sup>2</sup>=0.934),而生态系统蒸散(ET)模拟效果较差(<em>R</em><sup>2</sup>=0.188);同时用碳水通量观测数据优化时,NEE模拟效果稍差(<em>R</em><sup>2</sup>=0.929),但ET模拟效果显著提升(<em>R</em><sup>2</sup>=0.824),说明利用碳水通量观测数据同时优化,SIPNET模型才能较好地模拟试验站点碳水通量。在此基础上,开展了人工林生态系统碳通量对降水变化响应的敏感性分析,发现降水量减少对光合作用的影响比对呼吸作用的影响更为强烈,且碳水通量同时参与优化时模型才能较好地模拟碳通量随降水减少而快速降低的趋势,表明如果不能同时利用碳水通量进行参数优化,模型无法正确揭示生态系统碳循环对降水变异的响应。
[任小丽, 何洪林, 刘敏,. 基于模型数据融合的千烟洲亚热带人工林碳水通量模拟
. 生态学报, 2012, 32(23): 7313-7326.]
https://doi.org/10.5846/stxb201203230397Magsci [本文引用: 2]摘要
人工林生态系统是我国森林生态系统的重要组成部分,在全球碳平衡中的作用越来越受到重视。利用千烟洲亚热带人工针叶林通量观测站的碳水通量和气象观测数据,通过模型数据融合方法对碳水循环过程模型——SIPNET模型关键参数进行反演,模拟了2004-2009年千烟洲人工林生态系统的碳水通量。结果表明:仅用碳通量观测数据优化模型参数时,净生态系统碳交换量(NEE)模拟效果较好(<em>R</em><sup>2</sup>=0.934),而生态系统蒸散(ET)模拟效果较差(<em>R</em><sup>2</sup>=0.188);同时用碳水通量观测数据优化时,NEE模拟效果稍差(<em>R</em><sup>2</sup>=0.929),但ET模拟效果显著提升(<em>R</em><sup>2</sup>=0.824),说明利用碳水通量观测数据同时优化,SIPNET模型才能较好地模拟试验站点碳水通量。在此基础上,开展了人工林生态系统碳通量对降水变化响应的敏感性分析,发现降水量减少对光合作用的影响比对呼吸作用的影响更为强烈,且碳水通量同时参与优化时模型才能较好地模拟碳通量随降水减少而快速降低的趋势,表明如果不能同时利用碳水通量进行参数优化,模型无法正确揭示生态系统碳循环对降水变异的响应。
[16]Raymond P A, Hartmann J, Lauerwald R, et al.Global carbon dioxide emissions from inland waters.
Nature, 2013, 503: 355-359.
https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12760URLMagsci [本文引用: 2]摘要
Carbon dioxide (CO2) transfer from inland waters to the atmosphere, known as CO2 evasion, is a component of the global carbon cycle. Global estimates of CO2 evasion have been hampered, however, by the lack of a framework for estimating the inland water surface area and gas transfer velocity and by the absence of a global CO2 database. Here we report regional variations in global inland water surface area, dissolved CO2 and gas transfer velocity. We obtain global CO2 evasion rates of 1.8(-0.25)(+0.25) petagrams of carbon (Pg C) per year from streams and rivers and 0.32(-0.26)(+0.52) Pg C yr(-1) from lakes and reservoirs, where the upper and lower limits are respectively the 5th and 95th confidence interval percentiles. The resulting global evasion rate of 2.1 Pg C yr(-1) is higher than previous estimates owing to a larger stream and river evasion rate. Our analysis predicts global hotspots in stream and river evasion, with about 70 per cent of the flux occurring over just 20 per cent of the land surface. The source of inland water CO2 is still not known with certainty and new studies are needed to research the mechanisms controlling CO2 evasion globally.
[17]Abril G, Guerin F, Richard S, et al. Carbon dioxide and methane emissions and the carbon budget of a 10-year old tropical reservoir((PetitSaut,French Guiana)
. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 2005, 19, GB4007.doi: 10.1029/2005GB002457.
URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
The emissions of carbon dioxide (CO) and methane (CH) from the Petit Saut hydroelectric reservoir (Sinnamary River, French Guiana) to the atmosphere were quantified for 10 years since impounding in 1994. Diffusive emissions from the reservoir surface were computed from direct flux measurements in 1994, 1995, and 2003 and from surface concentrations monitoring. Bubbling emissions, which occur only at water depths lower than 10 m, were interpolated from funnel measurements in 1994, 1997, and 2003. Degassing at the outlet of the dam downstream of the turbines was calculated from the difference in gas concentrations upstream and downstream of the dam and the turbined discharge. Diffusive emissions from the Sinnamary tidal river and estuary were quantified from direct flux measurements in 2003 and concentrations monitoring. Total carbon emissions were 0.37 卤 0.01 Mt yrC (COemissions, 0.30 卤 0.02; CHemissions, 0.07 卤 0.01) the first 3 years after impounding (1994-1996) and then decreased to 0.12 卤 0.01 Mt yrC (CO, 0.10 卤 0.01; CH, 0.016 卤 0.006) since 2000. On average over the 10 years, 61% of the COemissions occurred by diffusion from the reservoir surface, 31% from the estuary, 7% by degassing at the outlet of the dam, and a negligible fraction by bubbling. CHdiffusion and bubbling from the reservoir surface were predominant (40% and 44%, respectively) only the first year after impounding. Since 1995, degassing at an aerating weir downstream of the turbines has become the major pathway for CHemissions, reaching 70% of the total CHflux. In 2003, river carbon inputs were balanced by carbon outputs to the ocean and were about 3 times lower than the atmospheric flux, which suggests that 10 years after impounding, the flooded terrestrial carbon is still the predominant contributor to the gaseous emissions. In 10 years, about 22% of the 10 Mt C flooded was lost to the atmosphere. Our results confirm the significance of greenhouse gas emissions from tropical reservoir but stress the importance of: (1) considering all the gas pathways upstream and downstream of the dams and (2) taking into account the reservoir age when upscaling emissions rates at the global scale.
[18]Barros N, Cole J J, Tranvik L J, et al.Carbon emission from hydroelectric reservoirs linked to reservoir age and latitude.
Nature Geoscience, 2011, 4: 593-596.
https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1211URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
ABSTRACT Cited By (since 1996): 19, Export Date: 15 February 2013, Source: Scopus
[19]Jiang Tao, Guo Jinsong, Li Zhe, et al.Air-water surface greenhouse gas flux in Pengxi River at different operational stages of the Three Gorges Reservoir.
Chinese Journal of Environmental Science, 2012, 33(5): 1463-1470.
URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
水电是具有显著减排效益的清洁 能源形式,但水库潜在的温室气体效应近年来备受关切,在一定程度上影响了人们对水库清洁能源属性的认识.本研究分别于2010年8月水库低水位运行期及 12月高水位运行期,对三峡库区典型支流——澎溪河上游温泉至下游双江6个沿程断面进行水样的采集及温室气体通量的监测研究.结果表明,在河流纵向上,表 层水体水温、pH逐渐沿程增加,而CO2分压(pCO2)和碱度(TA)则有相反趋势.在低水位的8月,开县以下断面CO2通量为负,且浮游植物可能是控 制水体CO2通量及营养盐的关键因素之一.澎溪河回水区CO2通量相对天然河道背景断面(温泉)平均降低了3.26 mmol.(m2.h)-1,而CH4通量却大幅度增加了.在高水位运行的12月,澎溪河各断面均为CO2释放通量,CH4通量相比低水位则明显降低.相 比较天然河道的温泉断面,澎溪河回水区在高水位运行状态下CO2与CH4通量分别增加了4.16mmol.(m2.h)-1和0.007 mmol.(m2.h)-1.初步的净通量分析发现,该水域较加拿大实验水库的净通量特征低.
[蒋滔, 郭劲松, 李哲, . 三峡水库不同运行状态下支流澎溪河水: 气界面温室气体通量特征初探
. 环境科学, 2012, 33(5): 1463-1470.]
URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
水电是具有显著减排效益的清洁 能源形式,但水库潜在的温室气体效应近年来备受关切,在一定程度上影响了人们对水库清洁能源属性的认识.本研究分别于2010年8月水库低水位运行期及 12月高水位运行期,对三峡库区典型支流——澎溪河上游温泉至下游双江6个沿程断面进行水样的采集及温室气体通量的监测研究.结果表明,在河流纵向上,表 层水体水温、pH逐渐沿程增加,而CO2分压(pCO2)和碱度(TA)则有相反趋势.在低水位的8月,开县以下断面CO2通量为负,且浮游植物可能是控 制水体CO2通量及营养盐的关键因素之一.澎溪河回水区CO2通量相对天然河道背景断面(温泉)平均降低了3.26 mmol.(m2.h)-1,而CH4通量却大幅度增加了.在高水位运行的12月,澎溪河各断面均为CO2释放通量,CH4通量相比低水位则明显降低.相 比较天然河道的温泉断面,澎溪河回水区在高水位运行状态下CO2与CH4通量分别增加了4.16mmol.(m2.h)-1和0.007 mmol.(m2.h)-1.初步的净通量分析发现,该水域较加拿大实验水库的净通量特征低.
[20]Zhao Dengzhong, Tan Debao, Wang Chaohui, et al.Measurement and analysis of greenhouse gas fluxes from Shuibuya Reservoir in Qingjiang River Basin.
Journal of Yangtze River Scientific Research Institute, 2011, 28(10): 197-204.
Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
为了研究水库温室气体源汇变化,选择清江流域水布垭水库作为研究案例,在 2010 年 5 月和 10 月开展了2次原位观测试验,获取了水布垭水库水气界面二氧化碳和甲烷交换通量、水体上空大气温室气体浓度垂直变化规律及水环境因子。结果表明:水布垭水库 2010 年 5 月份水体上空大气二氧化碳浓度在 0.5 m 高度以下最高,其中表层水温对水库水体二氧化碳源汇地位具有重要的影响; 2010年 10 月份水布垭水库水气界面二氧化碳和甲烷交换通量呈排放状态,平均通量分别为3 740.92 &plusmn;1 872.56mg&middot;m -2&middot;d -1和1.22&plusmn;0.57mg&middot;m -2&middot;d -1,但比世界温带和热带主要水库要低得多,接近于中国太湖和东湖等自然水体排放水平;二氧化碳通量的空间分布从上游到坝前呈现升高的趋势,而甲烷的空间分布趋势则呈现相反的趋势。研究将为我国水库温室气体科学研究提供了宝贵的示范案例,为开展水电清洁能源开发提供科学支撑。
[赵登忠, 谭德宝, 汪朝辉, . 清江流域水布垭水库温室气体交换通量监测与分析研究
. 长江科学院院报, 2011, 28(10):197-204.]
Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
为了研究水库温室气体源汇变化,选择清江流域水布垭水库作为研究案例,在 2010 年 5 月和 10 月开展了2次原位观测试验,获取了水布垭水库水气界面二氧化碳和甲烷交换通量、水体上空大气温室气体浓度垂直变化规律及水环境因子。结果表明:水布垭水库 2010 年 5 月份水体上空大气二氧化碳浓度在 0.5 m 高度以下最高,其中表层水温对水库水体二氧化碳源汇地位具有重要的影响; 2010年 10 月份水布垭水库水气界面二氧化碳和甲烷交换通量呈排放状态,平均通量分别为3 740.92 &plusmn;1 872.56mg&middot;m -2&middot;d -1和1.22&plusmn;0.57mg&middot;m -2&middot;d -1,但比世界温带和热带主要水库要低得多,接近于中国太湖和东湖等自然水体排放水平;二氧化碳通量的空间分布从上游到坝前呈现升高的趋势,而甲烷的空间分布趋势则呈现相反的趋势。研究将为我国水库温室气体科学研究提供了宝贵的示范案例,为开展水电清洁能源开发提供科学支撑。
[21]Han Yang, Zheng Youfei, Wu Rongjun, et al.Greenhouse gases emission characteristics of Nanjing typical waters in Spring.
China Environmental Science, 2013, 33(8): 1360-1371.
Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
利用静态箱-气相色谱法对南京4条河流(内秦淮河、外秦淮河、金川河、团结河)和1座水库(丁解水库)的春季水-气界面CO2、CH4、N2O 3种温室气体通量进行包括昼夜变化的持续观测,对其变化趋势及影响因素加以分析.结果表明,春季团结河CO2和CH4的排放量最大,分别为1023.34,89.45mg/(m2·h),金川河两种气体排放量次之,内、外秦淮河CO2排放量相当,而内秦淮CH4的排放量比外秦淮小1个量级.丁解水库该2种温室气体排放量最小.金川河N2O的排放量最高,为151.31μg/(m2·h),团结河N2O排放量次之[111.74μg/(m2·h)],其他2条河流和丁解水库N2O的排放量均在一个量级上(101).水-气界面温室气体的排放受温度、压力、风速等环境因子影响.温室气体的昼夜变化分析结果表明,除了金川河N2O的排放趋势为昼间排放、夜间吸收外,其余河流及丁解水库均为温室气体的排放源.内秦淮和丁解水库的排放趋势受人为因素影响较大,外秦淮河的排放趋势主要受水位的高低变化影响,团结河的排放量受风速和温度的共同影响.金川河主要受微生物活性影响3种温室气体均呈明显的昼夜变化.5种水体在春季是大气3种温室气体的主要排放源.
[韩洋, 郑有飞, 吴荣军, . 南京典型水体春季温室气体排放特征研究
. 中国环境科学, 2013, 33(8): 1360-1371.]
Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
利用静态箱-气相色谱法对南京4条河流(内秦淮河、外秦淮河、金川河、团结河)和1座水库(丁解水库)的春季水-气界面CO2、CH4、N2O 3种温室气体通量进行包括昼夜变化的持续观测,对其变化趋势及影响因素加以分析.结果表明,春季团结河CO2和CH4的排放量最大,分别为1023.34,89.45mg/(m2·h),金川河两种气体排放量次之,内、外秦淮河CO2排放量相当,而内秦淮CH4的排放量比外秦淮小1个量级.丁解水库该2种温室气体排放量最小.金川河N2O的排放量最高,为151.31μg/(m2·h),团结河N2O排放量次之[111.74μg/(m2·h)],其他2条河流和丁解水库N2O的排放量均在一个量级上(101).水-气界面温室气体的排放受温度、压力、风速等环境因子影响.温室气体的昼夜变化分析结果表明,除了金川河N2O的排放趋势为昼间排放、夜间吸收外,其余河流及丁解水库均为温室气体的排放源.内秦淮和丁解水库的排放趋势受人为因素影响较大,外秦淮河的排放趋势主要受水位的高低变化影响,团结河的排放量受风速和温度的共同影响.金川河主要受微生物活性影响3种温室气体均呈明显的昼夜变化.5种水体在春季是大气3种温室气体的主要排放源.
[22]PMSEIC. Challenges at Energy-Water-Carbon Intersections. Prime Minister's Science, Engineering and Innovation Council, Canberra,
Australia, 2010.
URL [本文引用: 1]
[23]Rothausen S G S A, Conway D. Greenhouse-gas emissions from energy use in the water sector
. Nature Climate Change. 2013, 503: 355-359.
[本文引用: 1]
[24]Qin Huapeng, Yuan Huizhou.Urban Water System and Carbon Emission. Beijing: Science Press, 2014.URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
本书以评估和管理城市水系统的碳排放为目的,阐述城市水系统与碳排放的基础原理,探讨供水系统、污水处理系统、建筑水系统和雨洪系统碳排放的规律和评估方法,并介绍城市水系统碳减排的途径。
[秦华鹏, 袁辉洲. 城市水系统与碳排放 . 北京: 科学出版社, 2014.]URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
本书以评估和管理城市水系统的碳排放为目的,阐述城市水系统与碳排放的基础原理,探讨供水系统、污水处理系统、建筑水系统和雨洪系统碳排放的规律和评估方法,并介绍城市水系统碳减排的途径。
[25]Yan Denghua, Qin Tianling, Zhang Ping.Study on water resources rational deployment framework based on the low-carbon development mode.
Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 2010, 41(8): 970-976.
URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
在整体识别水循环与碳平衡耦合作用机制基础上,系统剖析水电开发、水资源开发、生态环境建设和航运(水运)等涉水资源与能源开发过程中的碳捕获与释放特征,提出基于低碳发展模式的水资源配置内涵、特征及总体任务,构建以区域碳水耦合模拟和水资源配置为主要支撑的技术框架,深入探讨了基于低碳模式的水资源配置、模型构建、方案集设置、方案优选过程、对策及保障措施制订等关键技术问题。
[严登华, 秦天玲, 张萍. 基于低碳发展模式的水资源合理配置框架研究
. 水利学报, 2010, 41(8): 970-976.]
URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
在整体识别水循环与碳平衡耦合作用机制基础上,系统剖析水电开发、水资源开发、生态环境建设和航运(水运)等涉水资源与能源开发过程中的碳捕获与释放特征,提出基于低碳发展模式的水资源配置内涵、特征及总体任务,构建以区域碳水耦合模拟和水资源配置为主要支撑的技术框架,深入探讨了基于低碳模式的水资源配置、模型构建、方案集设置、方案优选过程、对策及保障措施制订等关键技术问题。
[26]Rodriguez N, Armenteras D, Retana J.National ecosystems services priorities for planning carbon and water resource management in Colombia.
Land Use Policy, 2015, 42: 609-618.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2014.09.013URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
The modelling and mapping of ecosystem services (ES) are important components of any programme of land management planning, as they help evaluate the potential benefits that ecosystems provide to society. The objective of this paper is to evaluate ES for setting priorities and planning carbon and water resource management in Colombia. By using information related to provision and regulation services for water, carbon storage and protection services against extreme events such as landslides, we have evaluated the spatial distribution of ES and identified geographical hotspots. The results are presented for two levels of analyses: (1) natural regions and (2) watersheds. We found differences in the distribution and range of values for ES and observed that each region and watershed tends to maximise one or two services, with the exception of the Caribbean region, which presents low values for most services. The services of water resources provision, regulation of water flow and carbon storage in the above-ground biomass presented high correlations among them, with the Pacific and Amazonian regions presenting the highest average values for these ES. The Andean region was important for the prevention of landslides and the amount of carbon in the soil. At the watershed level, the Amazon watershed and those associated with transition areas (piedmont) between the Andes and the lowlands of the Amazonian, Orinoquia and Pacific regions were the areas where the greatest number of hotspots was concentrated. These results provide valuable information on how better use official institutional information to quickly define and prioritise ES, to guide management actions within the country's recent policies on integrated water resources management and on biodiversity and ES.
[27]Wang J X,Rothausen S G S A, Conway D, et al. China's water-energy nexus: Greenhouse-gas emissions from groundwater use for agriculture.
Environmental Research Letters, 2012, 7: 268-272.
[本文引用: 3]
[28]Li C, Wang Y, Qiu G Y.Water and energy consumption by agriculture in the Minqin oasis region.
Journal of Integrative Agriculture, 2013, 12(8): 1330-1340.
[本文引用: 2]
[29]Egilmez G, Park Y S.Transportation related carbon, energy and water footprint analysis of U.S. manufacturing: An eco-efficiency assessment.
Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 2014, 32: 143-159.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2014.07.001URL [本文引用: 2]摘要
In this paper, two-step hierarchical methodology is utilized to quantify the transportation related carbon, energy and water footprint (FP) of nation鈥檚 manufacturing sectors and evaluate the environmental vs. economic performance based on eco-efficiency scores. The methodology consists of an integrated application of the economic input output life cycle assessment (EIO-LCA) and Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) approaches. In the first phase, EIO-LCA is employed to quantify the environmental impacts associated with the activities between 276 manufacturing sectors and the transportation industry and the second phase compares the overall environmental impact vs. economic benefit tradeoff by determining the eco-efficiency value of each sector. Results of EIO-LCA indicated that food manufacturing is found to be as the major driver of carbon, energy and water FP categories with an approximate share of 22% of the total impact on freight transportation activities in the transportation industry. Additionally, based on DEA-based sustainability performance assessment results, vast majority of U.S. manufacturing sectors were found to be inefficient (eco-efficiency <1). Only tobacco manufacturing was found to be eco-efficient among 53 major manufacturing sectors and the U.S. average was obtained as 0.5. Results indicated that inefficient U.S. manufacturing sectors need to reach an average reduction of 50% on the carbon, energy and water FP impacts to reach the 100% eco-efficiency frontier. Additionally, the weight of the transported goods was incorporated into the economic output as $/ton-km carriage, which yielded highly correlated results with the initial assessment based on total economic output only.
[30]Schneider A G, Townsend-Small A.Impact of direct greenhouse gas emissions on the carbon footprint of water reclamation processes employing nitrification-denitrification.
Science of the Total Environment, 2015, 505(1): 1166-1173.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.10.060URLPMID:25461114 [本文引用: 2]摘要
Water reclamation has the potential to reduce water supply demands from aquifers and more energy-intensive water production methods (e.g., seawater desalination). However, water reclamation via biological nitrification–denitrification is also associated with the direct emission of the greenhouse gases (GHGs) CO 2 , N 2 O, and CH 4 . We quantified these direct emissions from the nitrification–denitrification reactors of a water reclamation plant in Southern California, and measured the 14 C content of the CO 2 to distinguish between short- and long-lived carbon. The total emissions were 1.5 (±0.2) g-fossil CO 2 m 613 of wastewater treated, 0.5 (±0.1) g-CO 2 -eq of CH 4 m 613 , and 1.8 (±0.5) g-CO 2 -eq of N 2 O m 613 , for a total of 3.9 (±0.5) g-CO 2 -eqm 613 . This demonstrated that water reclamation can be a source of GHGs from long lived carbon, and thus a candidate for GHG reduction credit. From the 14 C measurements, we found that between 11.4% and 15.1% of the CO 2 directly emitted was derived from fossil sources, which challenges past assumptions that the direct CO 2 emissions from water reclamation contain only modern carbon. A comparison of our direct emission measurements with estimates of indirect emissions from several water production methods, however, showed that the direct emissions from water reclamation constitute only a small fraction of the plant's total GHG footprint.
[31]Kothavala Z, Arain M A, Black T A.The simulation of energy, water vapor and carbon dioxide fluxes over common crops by the Canadian Land Surface Scheme (CLASS).
Agriculture and Forest Meteorology, 2005, 133(1-4): 89-108.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2005.08.007URL [本文引用: 2]摘要
The performance of the Canadian Land Surface Scheme (CLASS) was evaluated against observed eddy covariance flux data from four commonly cultivated crops growing in different climatic conditions. Of the four crops examined, wheat and soybean are C
[32]Zhang Y C, Shen Y J, Xu X L, et al.Characteristics of the water-energy-carbon fluxes of irrigated pear (Pyrus bretschneideri Rehd) orchards in the North China Plain.
Agriculture Water Management, 2013, 128: 140-148.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2013.07.007URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
Pear trees ( Pyrus bretschneideri Rehd ) play an important role in the fruit production in the North China Plain (NCP) where water shortage is a serious problem. The objectives of this research were to explore the characteristics of water balance, energy transfer and carbon exchange of irrigated pear orchards by a combination of multiple measurement methods (eddy covariance system, sap flow method, and the other equipment). Experiments from 08/01/2011 to 10/31/2012 were conducted in a pear orchard located in the NCP. Annual net radiation (Rn) was 249002MJ02m 612 of which latent heat flux accounted for 74.5%, a little higher than the agro-ecosystem with wheat–maize rotation (70%). Annual mean water use efficient ( WUE ) was 1.9802g02CO 2 /kg02H 2 O which was lower than the agro-ecosystem in the same area. Annual evapotranspiration ( ET ) was 75902mm and daily transpiration ( T ) ranged from 0.5 to 4.302mm during May to October while daily T / ET varied from 0.6 to 0.9. Variation of ET can be explained well by the change of LAI. As annual drainage was 8602mm, it will take a long time for the shallow soil water (0–14002cm) to replenish deep groundwater. Optimal values of daily downward short wave radiation (Rs) (2002MJ02m 612 02d 611 ) and ET (654.802mm02d 611 ) were probably important thresholds for the plant growth. Changing irrigation method and crops planting structure adjusting according to the water balance and trees growth characteristics, were probably useful for keeping high yield with less water depletion while further research should be done in future.
[33]Flechard C R, Neftel A, Jocher M, et al.Bi-directional soil/atmosphere N2O exchange over two mown grassland systems with contrasting management practices.
Global Change Biology, 2005, 11: 2114-2127.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2005.01056.xURL [本文引用: 1]摘要
Abstract Nitrous oxide (N 2 O) fluxes from soil under mown grassland were monitored using static chambers over three growing seasons in intensively and extensively managed systems in Central Switzerland. Emissions were largest following the application of mineral (NH 4 NO 3 ) fertilizer, but there were also substantial emissions following cattle slurry application, after grass cuts and during the thawing of frozen soil. Continuous flux sampling, using automatic chambers, showed marked diurnal patterns in N 2 O fluxes during emission peaks, with highest values in the afternoon. Net uptake fluxes of N 2 O and subambient N 2 O concentrations in soil open pore space were frequently measured on both fields. Flux integration over 2.5 years yields a cumulated emission of +4.765kgN 2 O-N65ha 611 for the intensively managed field, equivalent to an average emission factor of 1.1%, and a small net sink activity of 610.465kg65N 2 O-N65ha 611 for the unfertilized system. The data suggest the existence of a consumption mechanism for N 2 O in dry, areated soil conditions, which cannot be explained by conventional anaerobic denitrification. The effect of fertilization on greenhouse gas budgets of grassland at the ecosystem level is discussed.
[34]Wang Yuesi, Ji Baoming, Huang Yao, et al.Effects of grazing and cultivating on emission of nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide and uptake of methane from grasslands.
Environmental Science, 2001, 22(6): 7-13.
https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:0250-3301.2001.06.002URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
利用优选静态箱/气相色谱法(GC),首次对我国内蒙古草原典型 地区进行了人类活动对N2O、CO2和CH4交换通量影响的实验观测结果表明,农垦麦田N2O平均排放通量比原始草原高出3倍,并改变了草甸草原为CO2 汇的性质,使其季节排放净通量以C计增加14.3 mg@(m2@h).随放牧强度的增加CO2排放通量呈线性增长,轻牧会引起草原对CH4吸收的大幅增加,而随着放牧压力的增大,增加值迅速回落.农垦麦 田与草甸草原相比地-气间CH4交换无显著变化,放牧强度对N2O排放影响无显著规律.土壤湿度和温度是影响草原排放N2O和CO2、吸收CH4季节变化 形式的关键因子,而人类活动仅影响排放强度.排放和吸收量年际间差异很大,但主要受降水的影响.N2O和CO2排放与CH4吸收峰值相反现象普遍存在.
[王跃思, 纪宝明, 黄耀, . 农垦与放牧对内蒙古草原N2O、CO2排放和CH4吸收的影响
. 环境科学, 2001, 22(6): 7-13.]
https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:0250-3301.2001.06.002URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
利用优选静态箱/气相色谱法(GC),首次对我国内蒙古草原典型 地区进行了人类活动对N2O、CO2和CH4交换通量影响的实验观测结果表明,农垦麦田N2O平均排放通量比原始草原高出3倍,并改变了草甸草原为CO2 汇的性质,使其季节排放净通量以C计增加14.3 mg@(m2@h).随放牧强度的增加CO2排放通量呈线性增长,轻牧会引起草原对CH4吸收的大幅增加,而随着放牧压力的增大,增加值迅速回落.农垦麦 田与草甸草原相比地-气间CH4交换无显著变化,放牧强度对N2O排放影响无显著规律.土壤湿度和温度是影响草原排放N2O和CO2、吸收CH4季节变化 形式的关键因子,而人类活动仅影响排放强度.排放和吸收量年际间差异很大,但主要受降水的影响.N2O和CO2排放与CH4吸收峰值相反现象普遍存在.
[35]Chen Guangsheng, Tian Hanqin.Land use/cover change effects on carbon cycling in terrestrial ecosystems.
Journal of Plant Ecology (Chinese version), 2007, 31(2): 189-204.
Magsci [本文引用: 2]摘要
土地利用/覆盖变化是学术界最为关注的环境变化问题之一,它能够影响陆地生态系统的 <BR>生物多样性、水、碳和养分循环、能量平衡,引起温室气体释放增加等其它环境问题。 <BR>不同类型的土地利用/覆盖变化对生态系统碳循环的作用不同,由高生物量的森林转化为 <BR>低生物量的草地、农田或城市后,大量的CO2将释放到大气中。全球土地利用/覆盖变化 <BR>具有很强的空间变异性,对生态系统碳循环的影响同样具有明显的空间差异:热带地区 <BR>的土地利用 /覆盖变化造成大量的碳释放,而中高纬度地区土地利用/覆盖变化则表现为 <BR>碳汇。目前,土地利用/覆盖变化引起的生态系统碳循环变化主要是通过模型模拟来估算 <BR>的。尽管土地利用/ 覆盖变化及其相关过程与生态系统碳循环的关系已经比较清楚,但 <BR>是,由于土地利用/覆盖变化过程复杂且影响广泛,对于如何量化两者之间的关系还存在 <BR>很多不确定性。目前的量化过程主要是利用经验数据来实现的,机理性不强,使得对土 <BR>地利用/覆盖变化造成的陆地生态系统CO2释放量的估测差异很大。除了进一步加强长期 <BR>定位研究以获得土地利用/覆盖变化与生态系统碳循环过程的定量关系外,土地利用/覆 <BR>盖变化模型与植被动态模型、生态系统过程模型的耦合也是今后模型发展的主要方向之 <BR>一。采用合理的管理措施能够大量增加土地利用/覆盖变化过程中的碳储存量,降低碳释 <BR>放量,因此在模型中耦合管理措施来研究土地利用/覆盖变化过程对生态系统碳循环的影 <BR>响是未来几年的工作重点。
[陈广生, 田汉勤. 土地利用/覆盖变化对陆地生态系统碳循环的影响
. 植物生态学报, 2007, 31(2): 189-204.]
Magsci [本文引用: 2]摘要
土地利用/覆盖变化是学术界最为关注的环境变化问题之一,它能够影响陆地生态系统的 <BR>生物多样性、水、碳和养分循环、能量平衡,引起温室气体释放增加等其它环境问题。 <BR>不同类型的土地利用/覆盖变化对生态系统碳循环的作用不同,由高生物量的森林转化为 <BR>低生物量的草地、农田或城市后,大量的CO2将释放到大气中。全球土地利用/覆盖变化 <BR>具有很强的空间变异性,对生态系统碳循环的影响同样具有明显的空间差异:热带地区 <BR>的土地利用 /覆盖变化造成大量的碳释放,而中高纬度地区土地利用/覆盖变化则表现为 <BR>碳汇。目前,土地利用/覆盖变化引起的生态系统碳循环变化主要是通过模型模拟来估算 <BR>的。尽管土地利用/ 覆盖变化及其相关过程与生态系统碳循环的关系已经比较清楚,但 <BR>是,由于土地利用/覆盖变化过程复杂且影响广泛,对于如何量化两者之间的关系还存在 <BR>很多不确定性。目前的量化过程主要是利用经验数据来实现的,机理性不强,使得对土 <BR>地利用/覆盖变化造成的陆地生态系统CO2释放量的估测差异很大。除了进一步加强长期 <BR>定位研究以获得土地利用/覆盖变化与生态系统碳循环过程的定量关系外,土地利用/覆 <BR>盖变化模型与植被动态模型、生态系统过程模型的耦合也是今后模型发展的主要方向之 <BR>一。采用合理的管理措施能够大量增加土地利用/覆盖变化过程中的碳储存量,降低碳释 <BR>放量,因此在模型中耦合管理措施来研究土地利用/覆盖变化过程对生态系统碳循环的影 <BR>响是未来几年的工作重点。
[36]Grūnzweig J M, Sparrow S D, Chapin F S, et al.Impact of forest conversion to agriculture on carbon and nitrogen mineralization in subarctic Alaska.
Biogeochemistry, 2003, 64: 271-296.
https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024976713243URLMagsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
<a name="Abs1"></a>Land-use change is likely to be a major component of global change at high latitudes, potentially causing significant alterations in soil C and N cycling. We addressed the biogeochemical impacts of land-use change in fully replicated black spruce forests and agricultural fields of different ages (following deforestation) and under different management regimes in interior Alaska. Change from forests to cultivated fields increased summer temperatures in surface soil layers by 4&#x2013;5 &deg;C, and lengthened the season of biological activity by two to three weeks. Decomposition of a common substrate (oat stubble) was enhanced by 25% in fields compared to forests after litter bags were buried for one year. In-situ net N mineralization rates in site-specific soil were similar in forests and fields during summer, but during winter, forests were the only sites where net N immobilization occurred. Field age and management had a significant impact on C and N mineralization. Rates of annual decomposition, soil respiration and summer net N mineralization tended to be lower in young than in old fields and higher in fallow than in planted young fields. To identify the major environmental factors controlling C and N mineralization, soil temperature, moisture and N availability were studied. Decomposition and net N mineralization seemed to be mainly driven by availability of inorganic N. Soil temperature played a role only when comparing forests and fields, but not in field-to-field differences. Results from soil respiration measurements in fields confirmed low sensitivity of heterotrophic respiration, and thus decomposition to temperature. In addition, both soil respiration and net N mineralization were limited by low soil water contents. Our study showed that (1) C and N mineralization are enhanced by forest clearing in subarctic soils, and (2) N availability is more important than soil temperature in controling C and N mineralization following forest clearing. Projecting the biogeochemical impacts of land-use change at high latitudes requires an improved understanding of its interactions with other factors of global change, such as changing climate and N deposition.
[37]Carlisle E A, Steenwerth K L, Smart D R.Effects of land use on soil respiration: Conversion of oak woodlands to vineyards.
Journal of Environmental Quality, 2006, 35: 1396-1404.
https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2005.0155URLPMID:16825460 [本文引用: 2]摘要
We examined constraints on soil respiration in natural oak woodlands, and adjacent vineyards that were converted approximately 30 yr ago from oak woodlands, in the Oakville Region of Valley, California. All sites were located on the same soil type, a Bale (variant) gravelly loam (fine-loamy, mixed, superactive, thermic Cumulic Ultic Haploxeroll) and dominated by C3 vegetation. Seasonal soil efflux was greatest at the oak woodland sites, although during the summer drought the rates of soil efflux measured from oak sites were generally similar to those measured from the vineyards. Soil profile concentrations at the oak woodland sites were lower below 15 cm despite higher efflux rates. Soil gas diffusion coefficients for oak sites were larger than for vineyard sites, and this indicated that the apparent discrepancy in soil profile carbon dioxide concentration () may be caused by a diffusion limitation. Soil profile and delta13C values showed substantial temporal changes over the course of a year. Vineyard soil was more depleted in 13CO2 below 25 cm in the soil profile during the active growing season as indicated by more negative delta13C ratios. This result indicated that different C sources were being oxidized in vineyard soils. Annual C losses were less from vineyard soils (7.02 +/- 0.58 Mg C ha(-1) yr(-1)) as compared to oak soils (15.67 +/- 1.44 Mg C ha(-1) yr(-1)), and both were comparable to losses reported in previous investigations.
[38]Liu Huifeng, Wu Xing, Li Ya, et al.Effects of land use change on greenhouse gas fluxes from soils: A review.
Chinese Journal of Ecology, 2014, 33(7): 1960-1968.
Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
<div >土壤是大气中主要温室气体(如CO<sub>2</sub>、CH<sub>4</sub>和N<sub>2</sub>O)重要的源或汇,土地利用方式的改变将会导致土壤相关微环境及其生理生化过程发生改变,从而显著影响土壤中温室气体的产生与排放。在全球变化和土地利用大幅度改变的背景下,国际上已逐步开展了关于土地利用变化对土壤温室气体通量的研究。本文在简要介绍土地利用变化与土壤温室气体通量研究的基础上,重点论述了农田、草地和森林互换、湿地向农田转变、不同土地利用类型(森林、草地、湿地和农田)内部变化对3种土壤温室气体排放的影响,并从3种土壤温室气体产生的关键过程简单阐述其主要影响机理。根据目前研究中存在的不足,提出了今后需要加强的领域,以期更好地揭示土地利用变化对土壤温室气体通量的影响及作用机理,为今后深入开展相关研究提供参考。</div><div ></br>&nbsp;</div>
[刘慧峰, 伍星, 李雅, . 土地利用变化对土壤温室气体排放通量影响研究进展
. 生态学杂志, 2014, 33(7): 1960-1968.]
Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
<div >土壤是大气中主要温室气体(如CO<sub>2</sub>、CH<sub>4</sub>和N<sub>2</sub>O)重要的源或汇,土地利用方式的改变将会导致土壤相关微环境及其生理生化过程发生改变,从而显著影响土壤中温室气体的产生与排放。在全球变化和土地利用大幅度改变的背景下,国际上已逐步开展了关于土地利用变化对土壤温室气体通量的研究。本文在简要介绍土地利用变化与土壤温室气体通量研究的基础上,重点论述了农田、草地和森林互换、湿地向农田转变、不同土地利用类型(森林、草地、湿地和农田)内部变化对3种土壤温室气体排放的影响,并从3种土壤温室气体产生的关键过程简单阐述其主要影响机理。根据目前研究中存在的不足,提出了今后需要加强的领域,以期更好地揭示土地利用变化对土壤温室气体通量的影响及作用机理,为今后深入开展相关研究提供参考。</div><div ></br>&nbsp;</div>
[39]Ostle N J, Levy P E, Evans C D, et al.UK land use and soil carbon sequestration.
Land Use Policy, 2009, 26: S274-S283
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2009.08.006URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
This review explores the role of land use and land use change as a determinant of the soil's ability to sequester and store carbon in the UK. Over 95 percent of the UK land carbon stock is located in soils which are subjected to a range of land uses and global changes. Land use change can result in rapid soil loss of carbon from peatlands, grasslands, plantation forest and native woodland. Soil...
[40]Houghton R A, Hackler J L, Lawrence K T. The U.S.carbon budget: contributions from land-use change.
Science, 1999, 285(5427): 574-578.
[本文引用: 4]
[41]Wang Yuangang, Luo Geping, Zhao Shubin, et al.Effects of arable land change on regional carbon balance in Xinjiang.
Acta Geographica Sinica, 2014, 69(1): 110-120.
https://doi.org/10.11821/dlxb201401011Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
基于“Bookkeeping”模型,对1975-2005 年期间新疆耕地变化对区域碳平衡的影响进行了分析。荒漠土地开垦和耕地转移是新疆耕地变化的两种主要方式,1975-2005 年这两种耕地变化方式使新疆碳储量增加了20.6 Tg C,其中土地开垦使区域碳储量增加了51.8 Tg C,而耕地转移则向大气排放了31.2 Tg C。在1975-1985 年期间,新疆耕地大规模转移,区域碳储量的变化趋势受耕地转移的影响较大;1985 年后随新疆土地开垦规模的增加,碳储量变化趋势主要受土地开垦影响。30 年间,新疆碳储量增加主要是由草地开垦为耕地引起,而耕地转移为草地是新疆碳储量减少的主要原因。新疆地区进行合理的水土开发活动有利于区域碳固定,且长期的耕作管理活动会进一步增强耕地的碳汇功能。
[王渊刚, 罗格平, 赵树斌, . 新疆耕地变化对区域碳平衡的影响
. 地理学报, 2014, 69(1): 110-120.]
https://doi.org/10.11821/dlxb201401011Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
基于“Bookkeeping”模型,对1975-2005 年期间新疆耕地变化对区域碳平衡的影响进行了分析。荒漠土地开垦和耕地转移是新疆耕地变化的两种主要方式,1975-2005 年这两种耕地变化方式使新疆碳储量增加了20.6 Tg C,其中土地开垦使区域碳储量增加了51.8 Tg C,而耕地转移则向大气排放了31.2 Tg C。在1975-1985 年期间,新疆耕地大规模转移,区域碳储量的变化趋势受耕地转移的影响较大;1985 年后随新疆土地开垦规模的增加,碳储量变化趋势主要受土地开垦影响。30 年间,新疆碳储量增加主要是由草地开垦为耕地引起,而耕地转移为草地是新疆碳储量减少的主要原因。新疆地区进行合理的水土开发活动有利于区域碳固定,且长期的耕作管理活动会进一步增强耕地的碳汇功能。
[42]Houghton R A, House JI, Pongratz J, et al.Carbon emissions from land use and land-cover change.
Biogeosciences, 2012, 9: 5125-5142.
https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-9-5125-2012URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
The net flux of carbon from land use and land-cover change (LULCC) is significant in the global carbon budget but uncertain, not only because of uncertainties in rates of deforestation and forestation, but also because of uncertainties in the carbon density of the lands actually undergoing change. Furthermore, there are differences in approaches used to determine the flux that introduce variability into estimates in ways that are difficult to evaluate, and there are forms of management not considered in many of the analyses. Thirteen recent estimates of net carbon emissions from LULCC are summarized here. All analyses consider changes in the area of agricultural lands (croplands and pastures). Some consider, also, forest management (wood harvest, shifting cultivation). None of them includes the emissions from the degradation of tropical peatlands. The net flux of carbon from LULCC is not the same as "emissions from deforestation", although the terms are used interchangeably in the literature. Means and standard deviations for annual emissions are 1.14±0.23 and 1.13±0.23 PgCyr-1 (1 Pg=1015 g carbon) for the 1980s and 1990s, respectively. Four studies also consider the period 2000-2009, and the mean and standard deviations for these four are 1.14±0.39, 1.17±0.32, and 1.10±0.11 PgCyr-1 for the three decades. For the period 1990-2009 the mean global emissions from LULCC are 1.14±0.18 PgCyr-1. The errors are smaller than previously estimated, as they do not represent the range of error around each result, but rather the standard deviation across the mean of the 13 estimates. Errors that result from data uncertainty and an incomplete understanding of all the processes affecting the net flux of carbon from LULCC have not been systematically evaluated but are likely to be on the order of ±0.5 PgCyr-1.
[43]Kalnay E, Cai M.Impact of urbanization and land-use change on climate.
Nature, 2003, 423: 528-531.
[本文引用: 1]
[44]Zhang C, Tian H Q, Chen G S, et al.Impacts of urbanization on carbon balance in terrestrial ecosystems of the southern United States.
Environmental Pollution, 2012, 164(5): 89-101.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2012.01.020URLPMID:22343525 [本文引用: 1]摘要
Using a process-based Dynamic Land Ecosystem Model, we assessed carbon dynamics of urbanized/developed lands in the Southern United States during 1945–2007. The results indicated that approximately 1.72 (1.69–1.77) Pg (1P=10 15 ) carbon was stored in urban/developed lands, comparable to the storage of shrubland or cropland in the region. Urbanization resulted in a release of 0.21Pg carbon to the atmosphere during 1945–2007. Pre-urbanization vegetation type and time since land conversion were two primary factors determining the extent of urbanization impacts on carbon dynamics. After a rapid decline of carbon storage during land conversion, an urban ecosystem gradually accumulates carbon and may compensate for the initial carbon loss in 70–100years. The carbon sequestration rate of urban ecosystem diminishes with time, nearly disappearing in two centuries after land conversion. This study implied that it is important to take urbanization effect into account for assessing regional carbon balance.
[45]Houghton R A, Hackler J L.Sources and sinks of carbon from land-use change in China.
Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 2003, 17(2): 1034-1047.
[本文引用: 3]
[46]Ge Quansheng, Dai Junhu, He Fanneng, et al.Research on land use and land cover change and carbon cycle during the past three hundred years in China.
Science in China (Series D), 2008, 38(2): 197-210.
https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1005.2008.01083URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
历史时期的土地利用与土地覆被变化是影响陆地生态系统碳循环的重要因素。过去300年间,我 国土地利用与覆被发生了较大变化,林地面积迅速减小,垦殖扩张明显,均对陆地生态系统的碳循环产生了重要的影响。采用通过第一手历史文献资料重建的历史土 地数据,分析了过去300年我国土地利用变化的主要特征,研究表明:在研究时段,耕地面积持续增加,从清前期1661年的60.78×10^6hm^2增 加到20世纪末的96.09×10^6hm^2;森林面积从1700年的248.13×10^6hm^2降至1949年的 109.01×10^6hm^2。受土地利用与覆被变化影响,全国陆地生态系统的碳储量也随之变化。其中,地上植被破坏弓I起的碳排放大约为3.70Pg C;土壤有机碳排放介于0.80-5.84Pg C之间,最适估计为2.48Pg C;植被和土壤变化引发的碳排放总计达4.50-9.54Pg C,最适估算为6.18Pg C。这远小于国外****估算所得的17.1-33.4Pg C的排放量。碳排放的空间分异明显,由于东北地区和西南地区的植被破坏相对较大,过去300年间这两个地区受土地利用与覆被变化影响的碳排放也较大,其余 排放量从大到小依次为内蒙古地区、华南西部地区、新疆和青藏高原区;而作为历史上传统农区的华北地区和华东地区,土地利用与覆被变化对陆地生态系统碳储量 影响相对较小。但是近年有关研究显示,目前全国自然植被活动增强,土地利用活动,特别是农林活动正对陆地生态系统碳储量产生比较明显的积极作用。
[葛全胜, 戴君虎, 何凡能, . 过去300年中国土地利用、土地覆被变化与碳循环研究
. 中国科学(D辑), 2008, 38(2): 197-210.]
https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1005.2008.01083URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
历史时期的土地利用与土地覆被变化是影响陆地生态系统碳循环的重要因素。过去300年间,我 国土地利用与覆被发生了较大变化,林地面积迅速减小,垦殖扩张明显,均对陆地生态系统的碳循环产生了重要的影响。采用通过第一手历史文献资料重建的历史土 地数据,分析了过去300年我国土地利用变化的主要特征,研究表明:在研究时段,耕地面积持续增加,从清前期1661年的60.78×10^6hm^2增 加到20世纪末的96.09×10^6hm^2;森林面积从1700年的248.13×10^6hm^2降至1949年的 109.01×10^6hm^2。受土地利用与覆被变化影响,全国陆地生态系统的碳储量也随之变化。其中,地上植被破坏弓I起的碳排放大约为3.70Pg C;土壤有机碳排放介于0.80-5.84Pg C之间,最适估计为2.48Pg C;植被和土壤变化引发的碳排放总计达4.50-9.54Pg C,最适估算为6.18Pg C。这远小于国外****估算所得的17.1-33.4Pg C的排放量。碳排放的空间分异明显,由于东北地区和西南地区的植被破坏相对较大,过去300年间这两个地区受土地利用与覆被变化影响的碳排放也较大,其余 排放量从大到小依次为内蒙古地区、华南西部地区、新疆和青藏高原区;而作为历史上传统农区的华北地区和华东地区,土地利用与覆被变化对陆地生态系统碳储量 影响相对较小。但是近年有关研究显示,目前全国自然植被活动增强,土地利用活动,特别是农林活动正对陆地生态系统碳储量产生比较明显的积极作用。
[47]Fang J Y, Chen A P, Peng C H, et al.Changes in forest biomass carbon storage in China between 1949 and 1998.
Science, 2001, 292(5525): 2320-2322.
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1058629URLPMID:11423660 [本文引用: 1]摘要
The location and mechanisms responsible for the carbon sink in northern mid-latitude are uncertain. Here, we used an improved estimation method of forest biomass and a 50-year national forest resource inventory in China to estimate changes in the storage of living biomass between 1949 and 1998. Our results suggest that Chinese forests released about 0.68 petagram of carbon between 1949 and 1980, for an annual emission rate of 0.022 petagram of carbon. Carbon storage increased significantly after the late 1970s from 4.38 to 4.75 petagram of carbon by 1998, for a mean accumulation rate of 0.021 petagram of carbon per year, mainly due to forest expansion and regrowth. Since the mid-1970s, planted forests (afforestation and reforestation) have sequestered 0.45 petagram of carbon, and their average carbon density increased from 15.3 to 31.1 megagrams per hectare, while natural forests have lost an additional 0.14 petagram of carbon, suggesting that carbon sequestration through forest management practices addressed in the Kyoto Protocol could help offset industrial carbon dioxide emissions.
[48]Zhao Rongqin, Huang Xianjin.Carbon emission and carbon footprint of different land use types based on energy consumption of Jiangsu province.
Geographical Research, 2010, 29(9): 1639-1649.
Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
<p>采用2003~2007年江苏省能源消费和土地利用等数据,通过构建能源消费的碳排放模型,对江苏省5年来能源消费碳排放进行了核算,并通过土地利用类型和碳排放项目的对应,对不同土地利用方式的碳排放及碳足迹进行了定量分析。结论如下:(1)江苏省能源消费碳排放总量从2003年的8794.24万t上升到2007年的16329.85万t,涨幅达86%。其中,终端能源消费碳排放占53.6%。(2)江苏全省土地单位面积碳排放从2003年8.24t/hm<sup>2</sup>上升到2007年15.53 t/hm<sup>2</sup>,增幅为88.5%。其中,居民点及工矿用地单位面积碳排放最大,为95.62 t/hm<sup>2</sup>。(3)江苏全省能源消费碳足迹大于生产性土地的实际面积,由此造成的生态赤字达1351.285万hm<sup>2</sup>。(4)不同土地利用类型的碳足迹大小顺序为:居民点及工矿用地>交通用地>未利用地及特殊用地>农用地和水利用地,其中居民点及工矿用地的碳足迹高达10.89 hm<sup>2</sup>/ hm<sup>2</sup>。(5)江苏全省单位面积碳足迹也呈明显的扩大趋势,从2003年的0.938 hm<sup>2</sup>/ hm<sup>2</sup>上升到2007年的1.769 hm<sup>2</sup>/ hm<sup>2</sup>。</p>
[赵荣钦, 黄贤金. 基于能源消费的江苏省土地利用碳排放与碳足迹
. 地理研究, 2010, 29(9): 1639-1649.]
Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
<p>采用2003~2007年江苏省能源消费和土地利用等数据,通过构建能源消费的碳排放模型,对江苏省5年来能源消费碳排放进行了核算,并通过土地利用类型和碳排放项目的对应,对不同土地利用方式的碳排放及碳足迹进行了定量分析。结论如下:(1)江苏省能源消费碳排放总量从2003年的8794.24万t上升到2007年的16329.85万t,涨幅达86%。其中,终端能源消费碳排放占53.6%。(2)江苏全省土地单位面积碳排放从2003年8.24t/hm<sup>2</sup>上升到2007年15.53 t/hm<sup>2</sup>,增幅为88.5%。其中,居民点及工矿用地单位面积碳排放最大,为95.62 t/hm<sup>2</sup>。(3)江苏全省能源消费碳足迹大于生产性土地的实际面积,由此造成的生态赤字达1351.285万hm<sup>2</sup>。(4)不同土地利用类型的碳足迹大小顺序为:居民点及工矿用地>交通用地>未利用地及特殊用地>农用地和水利用地,其中居民点及工矿用地的碳足迹高达10.89 hm<sup>2</sup>/ hm<sup>2</sup>。(5)江苏全省单位面积碳足迹也呈明显的扩大趋势,从2003年的0.938 hm<sup>2</sup>/ hm<sup>2</sup>上升到2007年的1.769 hm<sup>2</sup>/ hm<sup>2</sup>。</p>
[49]Lai Li, Huang Xianjin.Carbon Emission Effect of Land Use in China. Nanjing: Nanjing University Press, 2011.URL [本文引用: 3]摘要
本书的目的在于探讨近20年来, 在经济社会发展日新月异、土地利用变化格局快速转变的新形势下, 揭示中国土地利用变化行为的直接和间接碳排放效应, 并结合中国土地利用分类体系和植被覆盖特征, 制定土地利用的国家碳排放清单。
[赖力,黄贤金. 中国土地利用的碳排放效应研究. 南京: 南京大学出版社, 2011.]URL [本文引用: 3]摘要
本书的目的在于探讨近20年来, 在经济社会发展日新月异、土地利用变化格局快速转变的新形势下, 揭示中国土地利用变化行为的直接和间接碳排放效应, 并结合中国土地利用分类体系和植被覆盖特征, 制定土地利用的国家碳排放清单。
[50]Koemer B, Klopatek J.Anthropogenic and natural CO2 emission sources in an arid urban environment.
Environmental Pollution, 2002, 116(Suppl.1): S45-S51.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0269-7491(01)00246-9URLPMID:11833917 [本文引用: 1]摘要
Recent research has shown the Phoenix, AZ metropolitan region to be characterized by a CO 2 dome that peaks near the urban center. The CO 2 levels, 50% greater than the surrounding non-urban areas, have been attributed to anthropogenic sources and the physical geography of the area. We quantified sources of CO 2 emissions across the metropolitan region. Anthropogenic CO 2 emission data were obtained from a variety of government and NGO sources. Soil CO 2 efflux from the dominant land-use types was measured over the year. Humans and automobile activity produced more than 80% input of CO 2 into the urban environment. Soil CO 2 efflux from the natural desert ecosystems showed minimal emissions during hot and dry periods, but responded rapidly to moisture. Conversely, human maintained vegetation types (e.g. golf courses, lawns, irrigated agriculture) have greater efflux and are both temperature and soil moisture dependent. Landfills exhibited the most consistent rates, but were temperature and moisture independent. We estimate the annual CO 2 released from the predominant land-use types in the Phoenix region and present a graphical portrayal of soil CO 2 emissions and the total natural and anthropogenic CO 2 emissions in the metropolitan region using a GIS-based approach. The results presented here do not mimic the spatial pattern shown in previous studies. Only, with sophisticated mixing models will we be able to address the total effect of urbanization on CO 2 levels and the contribution to regional patterns.
[51]Araujo M S M, Silva C, Campos C P. Land use change sector contribution to the carbon historical emissions and the sustainability.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2009, 13(3): 696-702.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2007.10.008Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
<h2 class="secHeading" id="section_abstract">Abstract</h2><p id="">The paper presents 5 methodological aspects for the historic land use change accountability to compare 2 databases: the Historical Database on the Global Environment of RIVM, National Institute of Public Health and the Environment, adapted by the IVIG, International Virtual Institute of Global Change of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, named HYDE/IVIG and the Brazilian National Institute of Spatial Research database, named INPE database. The 5 aspects here considered are geographic limits; scale; basic methodology; deforestation concept; vegetal classification. It also presents their importance for the results of the calculus of deforested areas in the Brazilian Legal Amazon case. The use of the 2 databases information for carbon emissions calculation showed to be useful in terms of magnitude but not for qualitative analysis. The calculus of deforested areas is approximately similar for the period analyzed. According to HYDE/IVIG, the Brazilian Legal Amazon land use changes representing agriculture and pasture lands, account 422,070&#xA0;km<sup>2</sup>, between 1750 and 1990 and the natural areas modified were originally classified as 3 types: tropical forest, wooded tropical forest and savanna. According to INPE, the cumulative Brazilian Legal Amazon deforestation until 1990 accounts 415,000&#xA0;km<sup>2</sup> and the natural areas modified were originally classified as 9 types. It means that different carbon contents by unit of deforestation have to be taken into account for the carbon emissions calculus. These numbers show the compatibility of the databases in terms of magnitude but the quality of the information present huge differences.</p>
[52]Zhao Rongqin, Huang Xianjin, Liu Ying, et al.Carbon emission of regional land use and its decomposition analysis: Case study of Nanjing city, China.
Chinese Geographical Science, 2015, 25(2): 198-212.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11769-014-0714-1URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
Through the matching relationship between land use types and carbon emission items, this paper estimated carbon emissions of different land use types in Nanjing City, China and analyzed the influencing factors of carbon emissions by Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index(LMDI) model. The main conclusions are as follows: 1) Total anthropogenic carbon emission of Nanjing increased from 1.22928 x 107 t in 2000 to 3.06939 x 107 t in 2009, in which the carbon emission of Inhabitation, mining manufacturing land accounted for 93% of the total. 2) The average land use carbon emission intensity of Nanjing in 2009 was 46.63 t/ha, in which carbon emission intensity of Inhabitation, mining manufacturing land was the highest(200.52 t/ha), which was much higher than that of other land use types. 3) The average carbon source intensity in Nanjing was 16 times of the average carbon sink intensity(2.83 t/ha) in 2009, indicating that Nanjing was confronted with serious carbon deficit and huge carbon cycle pressure. 4) Land use area per unit GDP was an inhibitory factor for the increase of carbon emissions, while the other factors were all contributing factors. 5) Carbon emission effect evaluation should be introduced into land use activities to formulate low-carbon land use strategies in regional development.
[53]Zhao Rongqin, Chen Zhigang, Huang Xianjin, et al.Research progresses of land use carbon emission in Nanjing University.
Scientia Geographica Sinica, 2012, 32(12): 1473-1480.
Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
<p>土地利用是低碳经济和碳排放研究的重要切入点, 也是进行碳排放调控的重要工具之一。开展土地利用碳排放研究, 有助于从土地利用规划、产业结构调控及国土开发与整治等领域全面引导经济社会的低碳发展。2007 年以来, 南京大学在国内地理学界较早开展了土地利用碳排放研究, 研究进程主要包括两个阶段:区域不同尺度碳排放核算及驱动机制研究、土地利用及其变化的碳排放效应及优化调控研究。经过文献梳理与分析, 从区域碳排放核算、因素分析及减排潜力研究、土地利用及其变化的碳排放效应研究、区域土地利用及产业空间的碳足迹分析、面向低碳目标的土地利用结构优化研究、城市系统碳循环及其土地调控研究等方面对南京大学土地利用碳排放的主要研究方向进行了总结和评述;结合南京大学学科发展优势, 提出了土地利用碳排放研究的发展趋势, 主要包括:典型产业区碳排放研究、城市改造和环境设计与碳排放的关系研究、城市功能区碳排放研究、低碳土地利用规划的编制与应用、区域碳排放的土地调控机制与方法体系研究等。</p>
[赵荣钦, 陈志刚, 黄贤金, . 南京大学土地利用碳排放研究进展
. 地理科学, 2012, 32(12): 1473-1480.]
Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
<p>土地利用是低碳经济和碳排放研究的重要切入点, 也是进行碳排放调控的重要工具之一。开展土地利用碳排放研究, 有助于从土地利用规划、产业结构调控及国土开发与整治等领域全面引导经济社会的低碳发展。2007 年以来, 南京大学在国内地理学界较早开展了土地利用碳排放研究, 研究进程主要包括两个阶段:区域不同尺度碳排放核算及驱动机制研究、土地利用及其变化的碳排放效应及优化调控研究。经过文献梳理与分析, 从区域碳排放核算、因素分析及减排潜力研究、土地利用及其变化的碳排放效应研究、区域土地利用及产业空间的碳足迹分析、面向低碳目标的土地利用结构优化研究、城市系统碳循环及其土地调控研究等方面对南京大学土地利用碳排放的主要研究方向进行了总结和评述;结合南京大学学科发展优势, 提出了土地利用碳排放研究的发展趋势, 主要包括:典型产业区碳排放研究、城市改造和环境设计与碳排放的关系研究、城市功能区碳排放研究、低碳土地利用规划的编制与应用、区域碳排放的土地调控机制与方法体系研究等。</p>
[54]Zhao Rongqin, Huang Xianjin, Liu Ying, et al.Mechanism and policy framework for land regulation of carbon cycle of regional system. China Population,
Resources and Environment, 2014, 24(5): 51-56.
https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-2104.2014.05.009URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
土地利用活动是区域碳循环的重要影响因素,区域土地利用方式及其组合格局的改变会影响区域碳循环的规模和强度。开展区域系统碳循环的土地调控研究,有助于从区域开发、产业调整、土地规划、城镇布局及城市发展模式等方面促进区域低碳发展,是区域可持续发展的必然要求和重要途径。本文分析了土地利用对区域系统碳循环的影响机理,探讨了土地利用活动对区域自然和人为碳循环过程的影响;从土地利用方式、结构、规模和强度等方面分析了区域土地利用碳循环的土地调控机理,并提出了从价格、规划、税收和供地计划入手选择调控手段、确定调控对象,从而改变区域系统运行状况,以实现对区域碳循环进行调控的总体思路;最后从低碳土地利用技术、规划、模式和政策等四个方面提出了区域系统碳循环的土地调控的政策框架和实施策略:①低碳土地利用技术:包括低碳土地利用规划评价技术、土地节约集约利用技术和土地循环利用技术;②低碳土地利用规划:包括低碳型城镇土地利用规划、区域绿地系统规划、低碳交通用地系统规划、低碳土地利用结构布局规划及低碳主体功能区规划;③低碳土地利用模式:包括区域生态建设模式、环境友好型土地利用模式、紧凑型城市模式与低碳生态工业园模式;④低碳土地利用政策:包括土地碳补偿制度、土地用途管制制度、低碳土地金融制度、土地利用碳核算制度及低碳土地调控体系。通过构建区域系统碳循环的土地调控政策体系,不仅为区域土地利用活动提供指导,也可以为区域低碳土地利用调控提供参考。
[赵荣钦, 黄贤金, 刘英, . 区域系统碳循环的土地调控机理及政策框架研究
. 中国人口·资源与环境, 2014, 24(5): 51-56.]
https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-2104.2014.05.009URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
土地利用活动是区域碳循环的重要影响因素,区域土地利用方式及其组合格局的改变会影响区域碳循环的规模和强度。开展区域系统碳循环的土地调控研究,有助于从区域开发、产业调整、土地规划、城镇布局及城市发展模式等方面促进区域低碳发展,是区域可持续发展的必然要求和重要途径。本文分析了土地利用对区域系统碳循环的影响机理,探讨了土地利用活动对区域自然和人为碳循环过程的影响;从土地利用方式、结构、规模和强度等方面分析了区域土地利用碳循环的土地调控机理,并提出了从价格、规划、税收和供地计划入手选择调控手段、确定调控对象,从而改变区域系统运行状况,以实现对区域碳循环进行调控的总体思路;最后从低碳土地利用技术、规划、模式和政策等四个方面提出了区域系统碳循环的土地调控的政策框架和实施策略:①低碳土地利用技术:包括低碳土地利用规划评价技术、土地节约集约利用技术和土地循环利用技术;②低碳土地利用规划:包括低碳型城镇土地利用规划、区域绿地系统规划、低碳交通用地系统规划、低碳土地利用结构布局规划及低碳主体功能区规划;③低碳土地利用模式:包括区域生态建设模式、环境友好型土地利用模式、紧凑型城市模式与低碳生态工业园模式;④低碳土地利用政策:包括土地碳补偿制度、土地用途管制制度、低碳土地金融制度、土地利用碳核算制度及低碳土地调控体系。通过构建区域系统碳循环的土地调控政策体系,不仅为区域土地利用活动提供指导,也可以为区域低碳土地利用调控提供参考。
[55]Chuai Xiaowei, Huang Xianjin, Lai Li, et al.Land use structure optimization based on carbon storage in several regional terrestrial ecosystems across China.
Environmental Science and Policy, 2013, 25: 50-61.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2012.05.005URLMagsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
Land use change is a main driver of carbon storage in terrestrial ecosystems. Based on land use data, research results related to carbon densities in vegetation and soil as well as government policies related to development in different regions of China, this paper optimized land use structure in 2020 for different regions with the goal of increasing terrestrial ecosystem carbon storage. We defined seven types of land use: (1) cultivated land, (2) garden land, (3) woodland, (4) pasture land, (5) other agricultural land, (6) urbanized land, and (7) a mixture of other land which we call mixed land which included open water, swamps, glaciers and other land as defined below. We found: (1) For most eastern regions, woodland has the highest carbon (C) densities while C densities of pasture land and cultivated land did not differ widely. Both have C densities higher than urbanized land while urbanized land has higher carbon densities than the areas placed in the mixed land type. (2) Under an optimized land use structure projected for 2020, the area of cultivated land will decrease compared with 2005 for most regions. The areas of garden land, pasture land and other agricultural land are much smaller compared with the mixed land use type, and the changes there are not obvious and their contributions to increased carbon storage are not significant. The area of woodland will increase the most obviously and it will contribute the most to increased carbon storage. The increasing urbanization of land and the decreasing trend of other land types make it difficult to change carbon storage patterns since the Chinese economy is expanding rapidly. (3) The optimized land use structure presented here will have effects on the entire country though with regional differences. Some inland regions will always have a larger potential to increase carbon storage than other areas because the potentialities in some coastal regions are limited by social and economic development. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
[56]Chuai Xiaowei, Huang Xianjin, Wang Wanjing, et al.Land use, total carbon emission change and low carbon land management in coastal Jiangsu, China.
Journal of Cleaner Production, 2015, 103: 77-86.
[本文引用: 1]
[57]You Heyuan, Wu Cifang.Carbon emission efficiency and low carbon optimization of land use: Based on the perspective of energy consumption.
Journal of Natural Resources, 2010, 25(11): 1875-1886.
https://doi.org/10.11849/zrzyxb.2010.11.007Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
碳排放效率可以弥补碳排放总量等指标对碳排放作为成本对期望产出作用考虑不足的弱点。研究以土地利用中能源消耗产生的碳排放为基础,基于投入导向的CCR与BCC模型测算土地利用碳排放的总效率、技术效率、规模效率与规模报酬。研究结果表明:30个省份中仅内蒙古、福建、广西、青海土地利用碳排放总效率有效;技术效率与规模效率的效率值及其分布与土地利用特征存在联系,规模效率有效地区分布远小于技术有效;规模效率有效省份与规模报酬不变省份存在不一致,改善土地利用碳排放规模效率需要考虑地区规模报酬所处阶段。因此对26个碳排放非DEA有效省份的土地利用从投入与产出进行低碳优化,并给出投入冗余度与产出不足率。最后针对低碳优化结果,设计包含土地利用能源投入控制以及基于土地资源配置的产出优化的土地利用低碳排放对策,以实现碳排放效率有效。
[游和远, 吴次芳. 土地利用的碳排放效率及其低碳优化: 基于能源消费的视角
. 自然资源学报, 2010, 25(11): 1875-1886.]
https://doi.org/10.11849/zrzyxb.2010.11.007Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
碳排放效率可以弥补碳排放总量等指标对碳排放作为成本对期望产出作用考虑不足的弱点。研究以土地利用中能源消耗产生的碳排放为基础,基于投入导向的CCR与BCC模型测算土地利用碳排放的总效率、技术效率、规模效率与规模报酬。研究结果表明:30个省份中仅内蒙古、福建、广西、青海土地利用碳排放总效率有效;技术效率与规模效率的效率值及其分布与土地利用特征存在联系,规模效率有效地区分布远小于技术有效;规模效率有效省份与规模报酬不变省份存在不一致,改善土地利用碳排放规模效率需要考虑地区规模报酬所处阶段。因此对26个碳排放非DEA有效省份的土地利用从投入与产出进行低碳优化,并给出投入冗余度与产出不足率。最后针对低碳优化结果,设计包含土地利用能源投入控制以及基于土地资源配置的产出优化的土地利用低碳排放对策,以实现碳排放效率有效。
[58]Zhao Rongqin, Huang Xianjin, Zhong Taiyang, et al.Carbon effect evaluation and low-carbon optimization of land use in Nanjing.
Transactions of the Chinese Society of Agricultural Engineering, 2013, 29(17): 220-229.
Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
区域土地利用是引起碳排放的重要因素,土地利用结构优化能在一定程度改变土地利用的碳源/汇格局,并引导区域经济社会的低碳发展。基于线性规划方法,该文建立了区域土地利用碳效应综合评估及优化调控的方法,并以南京市为例,提出了3种土地利用低碳优化方案,并对其碳减排潜力进行了对比分析及蒙特卡洛模拟,最后提出了低碳土地利用优化的政策建议。结果发现,2020年南京市土地利用总体规划方案使区域的总碳蓄积量有所提升,但预期碳排放远远大于碳蓄积的增加值,同时也将会导致生态系统碳汇能力的降低;在3种优化方案中,基于碳排放最小化的土地利用结构优化方案比2020年规划方案的碳排放减少了73.75万t,碳减排潜力为8.50%,表明该方案起到了较好的预期减排效果;因此,该文建议将基于碳排放最小化的土地利用结构优化方案作为南京市未来土地结构调整和产业规划的参考,该方案不仅有助于实现碳减排的目标,而且对于控制建设用地的过快增长、增加生产性土地面积、引导农地整理和居民点用地整理等土地利用规划和开发活动都具有重要的现实意义。
[赵荣钦, 黄贤金, 钟太洋, . 区域土地利用结构的碳效应评估及低碳优化
. 农业工程学报, 2013, 29(17): 220-229.]
Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
区域土地利用是引起碳排放的重要因素,土地利用结构优化能在一定程度改变土地利用的碳源/汇格局,并引导区域经济社会的低碳发展。基于线性规划方法,该文建立了区域土地利用碳效应综合评估及优化调控的方法,并以南京市为例,提出了3种土地利用低碳优化方案,并对其碳减排潜力进行了对比分析及蒙特卡洛模拟,最后提出了低碳土地利用优化的政策建议。结果发现,2020年南京市土地利用总体规划方案使区域的总碳蓄积量有所提升,但预期碳排放远远大于碳蓄积的增加值,同时也将会导致生态系统碳汇能力的降低;在3种优化方案中,基于碳排放最小化的土地利用结构优化方案比2020年规划方案的碳排放减少了73.75万t,碳减排潜力为8.50%,表明该方案起到了较好的预期减排效果;因此,该文建议将基于碳排放最小化的土地利用结构优化方案作为南京市未来土地结构调整和产业规划的参考,该方案不仅有助于实现碳减排的目标,而且对于控制建设用地的过快增长、增加生产性土地面积、引导农地整理和居民点用地整理等土地利用规划和开发活动都具有重要的现实意义。
[59]Yu Degui, Wu Qun.Application of the model of land used structure optimization based on low-carbon limited.
Resources and Environment in the Yangtza Basin, 2011, 20(8): 911-917.
Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
<p>以经济快速发展区域(县域)的土地利用生态经济系统为研究对象,利用系统科学相关分析方法,结合区域土地利用的经济、生态和社会功能变化趋势,在分析区域未来社会经济科学发展、碳排放目标与土地利用结构变化关系的基础上,研究了土地利用结构调控的CO2当量指数、经济效益指数及其目标函数,通过集成Markov模型和结构优化方法,建立了区域土地利用结构的低碳优化动态调控模型(LUSCC)及其求解方法。最后以江苏泰兴市为例进行了分析验证,综合考虑该区域的发展战略和政策实施情况,获得3种不同碳排放目标调控程度的土地利用优化结构及其调控方法,研究表明,建立的基于碳排放约束的动态优化调控模型,能够满足土地资源配置效率的最大化及其可持续利用要求,为探索区域未来低碳型土地利用结构的优化方法提供参考。</p>
[余德贵, 吴群. 基于碳排放约束的土地利用的结构优化模型研究及其应用
. 长江流域资源与环境, 2011, 20(8): 911-917.
Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
<p>以经济快速发展区域(县域)的土地利用生态经济系统为研究对象,利用系统科学相关分析方法,结合区域土地利用的经济、生态和社会功能变化趋势,在分析区域未来社会经济科学发展、碳排放目标与土地利用结构变化关系的基础上,研究了土地利用结构调控的CO2当量指数、经济效益指数及其目标函数,通过集成Markov模型和结构优化方法,建立了区域土地利用结构的低碳优化动态调控模型(LUSCC)及其求解方法。最后以江苏泰兴市为例进行了分析验证,综合考虑该区域的发展战略和政策实施情况,获得3种不同碳排放目标调控程度的土地利用优化结构及其调控方法,研究表明,建立的基于碳排放约束的动态优化调控模型,能够满足土地资源配置效率的最大化及其可持续利用要求,为探索区域未来低碳型土地利用结构的优化方法提供参考。</p>
[60]Tang Jie, Mao Zilong, Wang Chenye, et al.Regional land use structure optimization based on carbon balance: A case study in Tongyu county, Jilin province.
Resources Science, 2009, 31(1): 130-135.
Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
土地利用/覆被变化对陆地生态系统碳循环有着显著影响。基于实地采集的土样测试数据和1989年、2000年、2004年8月份的陆地卫星TM遥感影像数据,采用生态系统类型法对吉林省通榆县旱田、水田、林地、草地、水域、城镇用地、沙地、盐碱地、湿地等11种陆地生态系统有机碳储量进行了估算,分析了土地利用/覆被变化对碳储量的影响;并采用线性规划方法优化土地利用结构,以实现土地利用结构变化下的陆地生态系统的碳平衡。结果表明,在以草地退化、土地沙化和盐碱化为主要特征的土地利用变化中,1989年~2000年研究区陆地生态系统的有机碳储量减少387.70×10<sup>4</sup>t,2000年以后进行的退耕还林、退耕还草等生态建设使有机碳储量增加69.70×10<sup>4</sup>t。应用线性规划模型获得的土地利用方案可以满足研究区对各类土地的需求,并预测2020年有机碳储量可达到4729.70×10<sup>4</sup>t。
[汤洁, 毛子龙, 王晨野, . 基于碳平衡的区域土地利用结构优化: 以吉林省通榆县为例
. 资源科学, 2009, 31(1): 130-135.]
Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
土地利用/覆被变化对陆地生态系统碳循环有着显著影响。基于实地采集的土样测试数据和1989年、2000年、2004年8月份的陆地卫星TM遥感影像数据,采用生态系统类型法对吉林省通榆县旱田、水田、林地、草地、水域、城镇用地、沙地、盐碱地、湿地等11种陆地生态系统有机碳储量进行了估算,分析了土地利用/覆被变化对碳储量的影响;并采用线性规划方法优化土地利用结构,以实现土地利用结构变化下的陆地生态系统的碳平衡。结果表明,在以草地退化、土地沙化和盐碱化为主要特征的土地利用变化中,1989年~2000年研究区陆地生态系统的有机碳储量减少387.70×10<sup>4</sup>t,2000年以后进行的退耕还林、退耕还草等生态建设使有机碳储量增加69.70×10<sup>4</sup>t。应用线性规划模型获得的土地利用方案可以满足研究区对各类土地的需求,并预测2020年有机碳储量可达到4729.70×10<sup>4</sup>t。
[61]Zhong Xuebin, Yu Guangming, He Guosong, et al.Carbon storage loss during land readjustment and optimization of ecological compensation.
Chinese Journal of Ecology, 2006, 25(3): 303-308.
Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
<P><FONT face=Verdana>土地整理改变了项目区土地利用结构,打破了生态系统碳循环平衡。在土地整理实施</FONT><FONT face=Verdana>的过程中以及实施以后一段时期,项目区生态系统碳蓄积量必然损失,从而使项目区农业生</FONT><FONT face=Verdana>态系统由碳汇变成了碳源。以湖北省荆门市东宝区崔院村土地整理项目区为例,拟通过对生</FONT><FONT face=Verdana>态系统碳蓄积量的估算,并采用线性规划的方法求算土地整理规划设计的最佳土地利用结构</FONT><FONT face=Verdana>,从而实现对土地整理所引起的生态系统碳量损失进行补偿的目标。结果表明,为了实现土</FONT><FONT face=Verdana>地整理的耕地面积最大化目标,通过采用线性规划的方法所得到的土地利用结构优化方案能</FONT><FONT face=Verdana>够很好地满足规划设计所涉及的各类用地的面积以及生态系统的碳量平衡等约束条件。耕地</FONT><FONT face=Verdana>面积增加量占总土地面积的11.94%实现了最大化目标,同时满足了道路系统和水利灌溉系统</FONT><FONT face=Verdana>以及居民点等用地的需求,而人工林地的面积必须增加3.90 hm<SUP>2</SUP>,也就实现土地整理前后</FONT><FONT face=Verdana>生态系统碳量的平衡。</FONT></P>
[钟学斌, 喻光明, 何国松, . 土地整理过程中碳量损失与生态补偿优化设计
. 生态学杂志, 2006, 25(3): 303-308.]
Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
<P><FONT face=Verdana>土地整理改变了项目区土地利用结构,打破了生态系统碳循环平衡。在土地整理实施</FONT><FONT face=Verdana>的过程中以及实施以后一段时期,项目区生态系统碳蓄积量必然损失,从而使项目区农业生</FONT><FONT face=Verdana>态系统由碳汇变成了碳源。以湖北省荆门市东宝区崔院村土地整理项目区为例,拟通过对生</FONT><FONT face=Verdana>态系统碳蓄积量的估算,并采用线性规划的方法求算土地整理规划设计的最佳土地利用结构</FONT><FONT face=Verdana>,从而实现对土地整理所引起的生态系统碳量损失进行补偿的目标。结果表明,为了实现土</FONT><FONT face=Verdana>地整理的耕地面积最大化目标,通过采用线性规划的方法所得到的土地利用结构优化方案能</FONT><FONT face=Verdana>够很好地满足规划设计所涉及的各类用地的面积以及生态系统的碳量平衡等约束条件。耕地</FONT><FONT face=Verdana>面积增加量占总土地面积的11.94%实现了最大化目标,同时满足了道路系统和水利灌溉系统</FONT><FONT face=Verdana>以及居民点等用地的需求,而人工林地的面积必须增加3.90 hm<SUP>2</SUP>,也就实现土地整理前后</FONT><FONT face=Verdana>生态系统碳量的平衡。</FONT></P>
[62]IPCC. 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories
. 2006.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1462-9011(99)00023-4URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
BACKGROUND 1. At its 17th Session, the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA) of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) invited the IPCC to revise the Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National
[63]Dhakal S.Urban energy use and greenhouse gas emissions in Asian mega-cities.
Kitakyushu: Institute for Global Environmental Strategies, 2004: 43-61.
URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
2.1. Urbanisation and Role of Cities in Sustainable Development ..................................................................102.2. Determinants of Energy Use in Cities ........................................................................................................112.3. Income-Energy-Environment Conundrum and Role of Innovative Policies in Cities ...........................132.4. Comprehensive Policy Framework for Energy-Environment Management in Asian Cities ................16
[64]Zhao Rongqin, Huang Xianjin, Zhong Taiyang, et al.Carbon footprint of different industrial spaces based on energy consumption in China.
Journal of Geographical Sciences, 2011, 21(2): 285-300.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11442-011-0845-6Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
Using energy consumption and land use data of each region of China in 2007, this paper established carbon emission and carbon footprint model based on energy consumption, and estimated the carbon emission amount of fossil energy and rural biomass energy of different regions of China in 2007. Through matching the energy consumption items with industrial spaces, this paper divided industrial spaces into five types: agricultural space, living &amp; industrial-commercial space, transportation industrial space, fishery and water conservancy space, and other industrial space. Then the author analyzed the carbon emission intensity and carbon footprint of each industrial space. Finally, advices of decreasing industrial carbon footprint and optimizing industrial space pattern were put forward. The main conclusions are as following: (1) Total amount of carbon emission from energy consumption of China in 2007 was about 1.65 GtC, in which the proportion of carbon emission from fossil energy was 89%. (2) Carbon emission intensity of industrial space of China in 2007 was 1.98 t/hm<sup>2</sup>, in which, carbon emission intensity of living &amp; industrial-commercial space and of transportation industrial space was 55.16 t/hm<sup>2</sup> and 49.65 t/hm<sup>2</sup> respectively, they were high-carbon-emission industrial spaces among others. (3) Carbon footprint caused by industrial activities of China in 2007 was 522.34×106 hm<sup>2</sup>, which brought about ecological deficit of 28.69×106 hm<sup>2</sup>, which means that the productive lands were not sufficient to compensate for carbon footprint of industrial activities, and the compensating rate was 94.5%. As to the regional carbon footprint, several regions have ecological profit while others have not. In general, the present ecological deficit caused by industrial activities was small in 2007. (4) Per unit area carbon footprint of industrial space in China was about 0.63 hm<sup>2</sup>/hm<sup>2</sup> in 2007, in which that of living &amp; industrial-commercial space was the highest (17.5 hm<sup>2</sup>/hm<sup>2</sup>). The per unit area carbon footprint of different industrial spaces all presented a declining trend from east to west of China.
[65]Shi Peihua, Wu Pu.A rough estimation of energy consumption and CO2 emission in tourism sector of China.
Acta Geographica Sinica, 2011, 66(2): 235-243.
Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
随着旅游产业规模的不断壮大,旅游业对气候、环境的影响日益引起国际机构和社会各界 的关注。旅游业能源利用及二氧化碳排放是旅游对环境影响的重要驱动力之一,成为近5 年来 世界旅游研究的新兴热点。旅游产业特点决定了旅游业能源消耗和二氧化碳排放量的测算是 个世界性的难题。本文采用&ldquo;自下而上&rdquo;法,通过文献研究与数理统计方法,首次系统估算中国 旅游业能源消耗和二氧化碳排放量。结果表明,2008 年,中国旅游业消耗能源428.30 PJ,占中国 能源总消耗量的0.51%;排放二氧化碳51.34 Mt,占全国二氧化碳总排放量的0.86%。旅游业是 低耗能、低排放、低碳产业,是应对气候变化和节能减排的优势产业,应该成为低碳经济发展的 重要领域。
[石培华, 吴普. 中国旅游业能源消耗与CO2排放量的初步估算
. 地理学报, 2011, 66(2): 235-243.
Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
随着旅游产业规模的不断壮大,旅游业对气候、环境的影响日益引起国际机构和社会各界 的关注。旅游业能源利用及二氧化碳排放是旅游对环境影响的重要驱动力之一,成为近5 年来 世界旅游研究的新兴热点。旅游产业特点决定了旅游业能源消耗和二氧化碳排放量的测算是 个世界性的难题。本文采用&ldquo;自下而上&rdquo;法,通过文献研究与数理统计方法,首次系统估算中国 旅游业能源消耗和二氧化碳排放量。结果表明,2008 年,中国旅游业消耗能源428.30 PJ,占中国 能源总消耗量的0.51%;排放二氧化碳51.34 Mt,占全国二氧化碳总排放量的0.86%。旅游业是 低耗能、低排放、低碳产业,是应对气候变化和节能减排的优势产业,应该成为低碳经济发展的 重要领域。
[66]Qu Jiansheng, Zhang Zhiqiang, Zeng Jingjing, et al.Household carbon emission differences and their driving factors in northwestern China.
Chinese Science Bulletin, 2013, 58(3): 260-266.
https://doi.org/10.1360/972012-1141Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
<p>为揭示西北地区居民家庭生活碳排放现状与规律, 基于家庭生活碳排放相关数据的调查, 综合利用《IPCC国家温室气体清单指南(2006)》、《中国温室气体清单研究》、投入产出分析方法和生命周期评价方法, 对西北地区居民家庭生活碳排放情况进行了评估分析. 研究发现: 西北地区人均生活碳排放只有2.05 tCO<sub>2</sub>/(人 年); 生活碳排放主要来源于煤炭、电力和食品消费, 化石燃料消费所产生的直接碳排放占39.29%, 电力等家庭消费活动所产生的间接碳排放占60.71%; 生活碳排放主要受地理环境、家庭规模、经济收入、年龄结构等因素影响, 不同省区和城乡人口之间的排放量存在一定差别.</p>
[曲建升, 张志强, 曾静静, . 西北地区居民生活碳排放结构及其影响因素
. 科学通报, 2013, 58(3): 260-266.]
https://doi.org/10.1360/972012-1141Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
<p>为揭示西北地区居民家庭生活碳排放现状与规律, 基于家庭生活碳排放相关数据的调查, 综合利用《IPCC国家温室气体清单指南(2006)》、《中国温室气体清单研究》、投入产出分析方法和生命周期评价方法, 对西北地区居民家庭生活碳排放情况进行了评估分析. 研究发现: 西北地区人均生活碳排放只有2.05 tCO<sub>2</sub>/(人 年); 生活碳排放主要来源于煤炭、电力和食品消费, 化石燃料消费所产生的直接碳排放占39.29%, 电力等家庭消费活动所产生的间接碳排放占60.71%; 生活碳排放主要受地理环境、家庭规模、经济收入、年龄结构等因素影响, 不同省区和城乡人口之间的排放量存在一定差别.</p>
[67]Howitt O J A, Revol V G N, Smith I J, et al. Carbon emissions from international cruise ship passengers' travel to and from New Zealand.
Energ Policy, 2010, 38(5): 2552-2560.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2009.12.050Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
<h2 class="secHeading" id="section_abstract">Abstract</h2><p id="">Greenhouse gas emissions from international transport contribute to anthropogenic global warming, yet these emissions are not liable under the Kyoto Protocol. International attention is being given to quantifying such emissions. This paper presents the results of research into international cruise ship journeys to and from New Zealand. CO<sub>2</sub> emissions from such journeys were calculated using an activity based, or &ldquo;bottom-up&rdquo;, model. Emissions factors for individual journeys by cruise ships to or from New Zealand in 2007 ranged between 250 and 2200&#xA0;g of CO<sub>2</sub> per passenger-kilometre (g&#xA0;CO<sub>2</sub> per p-km), with a weighted mean of 390&#xA0;g CO<sub>2</sub> per p-km. The weighted mean energy use per passenger night for the &ldquo;hotel&rdquo; function of these cruise vessels was estimated as 1600&#xA0;MJ per visitor night, 12 times larger than the value for a land-based hotel. Using a simple price elasticities calculation, international cruise journeys for transport purposes were found to have a greater relative decrease in demand than plane journeys when the impact of carbon pricing was analysed. The potential to decrease the CO<sub>2</sub> emissions per p-km was examined, and if passenger accommodation was compacted and some luxury amenities dispensed with values similar to those of economy-class air travel were obtained.</p>
[68]Ma Jing, Chai Yanwei, Liu Zhilin.The mechanism of CO2 emissions from urban transport based on individuals' travel behavior in Beijing.
Acta Geographica Sinica, 2011, 66(8): 1023-1032.
Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
近年来低碳城市逐渐成为众多学科关注的焦点所在,国内外****从多个角度对其开展一系列的理论与实证研究,但从微观层面深入探讨城市交通碳排放的影响机理的研究相对较为缺乏。利用北京市居民活动日志调查获取的第一手数据,基于居民日常出行行为计算微观层面的城市交通碳排放,并采用结构方程模型深入挖掘居住空间、个体行为以及交通碳排放三者之间的内在关系。结果表明,出行距离、机动出行概率对交通碳排放产生显著的正效应,而出行频率的影响并不显著;同时,出行结构的影响要远远大于出行总量的影响。另外,城市空间结构对城市交通碳排放产生显著影响,单位社区居民的出行行为整体具有&ldquo;低碳&rdquo;性质,应从低碳视角对单位社区进行重新审视。
[马静, 柴彦威, 刘志林. 基于居民出行行为的北京市交通碳排放影响机理
. 地理学报, 2011, 66(8): 1023-1032.]
Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
近年来低碳城市逐渐成为众多学科关注的焦点所在,国内外****从多个角度对其开展一系列的理论与实证研究,但从微观层面深入探讨城市交通碳排放的影响机理的研究相对较为缺乏。利用北京市居民活动日志调查获取的第一手数据,基于居民日常出行行为计算微观层面的城市交通碳排放,并采用结构方程模型深入挖掘居住空间、个体行为以及交通碳排放三者之间的内在关系。结果表明,出行距离、机动出行概率对交通碳排放产生显著的正效应,而出行频率的影响并不显著;同时,出行结构的影响要远远大于出行总量的影响。另外,城市空间结构对城市交通碳排放产生显著影响,单位社区居民的出行行为整体具有&ldquo;低碳&rdquo;性质,应从低碳视角对单位社区进行重新审视。
[69]Dong Huijuan, Geng Yong, Xue Bing, et al.Differences of energy consumption and carbon emission scenarios between central city and suburban areas.
Research of Environmental Sciences, 2011, 24(3): 354-362.
[本文引用: 1]

[董会娟, 耿涌, 薛冰, . 沈阳市中心城区和市郊区能耗碳排放格局差异
. 环境科学研究, 2011, 24(3): 354-362.]
[本文引用: 1]
[70]Hammond G P, Norman J B.Decomposition analysis of energy-related carbon emissions from UK manufacturing.
Energy, 2012, 41(1): 220-227.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2011.06.035Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
Energy-related carbon emissions from UK manufacturing have fallen, between 1990 and 2007, by approximately 2% per annum. This reduction could be caused by a number of effects that can act to increase or decrease the level of emissions. Decomposition analysis has been used to separate the contributions of changes in output, industrial structure, energy intensity, fuel mix and electricity emission factor to the reduction in carbon emissions. The primary reason for the fall in emissions was found to be a reduction in energy intensity. The manufacturing sector was also split into two subsectors: the energy-intensive (El) subsector, and the non-energy-intensive (NEI) subsector. The NEI subsector, somewhat surprisingly, was found to have made greater relative reductions in its energy-related carbon emissions over the study period. This was principally due to much greater relative improvements in energy intensity. There is evidence that the El subsector had made greater relative improvements in energy intensity in the period preceding 1990, and so this may have limited improvements post 1990. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
[71]Lu Zhiming, Peng Xizhe, Wu Kaiya, et al.Factors decomposition and empirical analysis of variations in energy carbon emission in China.
Resources Science, 2009, 31(12): 2072-2079.
Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
本文综合考量经济产出规模、人口规模、产业结构、能源结构及能源效率等因素对碳排放的影响,基于扩展的Kaya恒等式建立因素分解模型,应用LMDI分解方法对能源消费碳排放进行因素分解。应用该模型对中国1980年~2007年的能源消费碳排放进行分解分析,探讨其主要影响因素的作用机理并量化其贡献率。研究结果表明,经济产出效应对我国该阶段能源消费碳排放的贡献率最大,达到152.73%,其他各影响因素按贡献率绝对值大小依次是:能源强度效应为-79.93%,人口规模效应为20.20%,产业结构效应为7.78%,能源结构效应为-0.77%。研究认为,产业结构整体变化对该阶段碳排放增长未能表现出负效应,其主要原因是产业规模占GDP近半的第二产业的碳排放呈现长期增长态势,其贡献率抵消了第一、三产业对碳排放增长的负效应。目前我国节能减排的重点在于调整产业结构、优化能源结构及提高能源效率。针对实证结果,提出了相应的节能减排政策建议。
[陆志明, 彭希哲, 吴开亚, . 中国能源消费碳排放变化的因素分解及实证分析
. 资源科学, 2009, 31(12): 2072-2079.]
Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
本文综合考量经济产出规模、人口规模、产业结构、能源结构及能源效率等因素对碳排放的影响,基于扩展的Kaya恒等式建立因素分解模型,应用LMDI分解方法对能源消费碳排放进行因素分解。应用该模型对中国1980年~2007年的能源消费碳排放进行分解分析,探讨其主要影响因素的作用机理并量化其贡献率。研究结果表明,经济产出效应对我国该阶段能源消费碳排放的贡献率最大,达到152.73%,其他各影响因素按贡献率绝对值大小依次是:能源强度效应为-79.93%,人口规模效应为20.20%,产业结构效应为7.78%,能源结构效应为-0.77%。研究认为,产业结构整体变化对该阶段碳排放增长未能表现出负效应,其主要原因是产业规模占GDP近半的第二产业的碳排放呈现长期增长态势,其贡献率抵消了第一、三产业对碳排放增长的负效应。目前我国节能减排的重点在于调整产业结构、优化能源结构及提高能源效率。针对实证结果,提出了相应的节能减排政策建议。
[72]Zhu Yongbin, Wang Zheng, Pang Li, et al.Simulation on China's economy and prediction on energy consumption and carbon emission under optimal growth path.
Acta Geographica Sinica, 2009, 64(8): 935-944.
https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:0375-5444.2009.08.004URLMagsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
<p>能源消费所产生的碳排放是经济发展过程中不可避免的副产品,而且碳排放在大气中的积累会使全球气候不断变暖,因此经济增长与碳排放之间的关系一直是学术界关注的焦点。传统的基于EKC曲线的经济计量学方法一般是对经济与排放历史数据的相关关系研究,不能很好地反映二者之间的动力学机制。为此本文在内生经济增长模型Moon-Sonn基础上进行改进,首先从理论上得到了最优经济增长率与能源强度之间存在倒U曲线关系的必要条件,即能源的产出弹性小于0.5;接着将投入产出分析得到的反映技术进步下的能源强度代入模型,对中国未来经济增长路径进行了预测,同时得到了最优增长路径下的能源消费走势,进而通过对能源消费结构和不同能源品种的碳排放系数的预测和估计,以及对分品种能源碳排放的汇总计算得到了中国未来能源消费所产生的总的碳排放走势。结果显示,在当前技术进步速率下,我国分别在2043年和2040年达到能源消费高峰和碳排放高峰。此外,本文对能源强度不同下降速率对能源消费高峰的影响进行模拟发现,当降速为4.5%5%时,能源高峰将出现在2040年前,此时的人均GDP为10万元左右,与OECD国家的高峰时收入一致;而且分3种情景模拟了可再生能源替代政策对碳排放高峰的影响,发现提高可再生能源的比重可以明显降低碳排放量,但对高峰年份到来的时间影响甚微。</p>
[朱永彬, 王铮, 庞丽, . 基于经济模拟的中国能源消费与碳排放高峰预测
. 地理学报, 2009, 64(8): 935-944.]
https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:0375-5444.2009.08.004URLMagsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
<p>能源消费所产生的碳排放是经济发展过程中不可避免的副产品,而且碳排放在大气中的积累会使全球气候不断变暖,因此经济增长与碳排放之间的关系一直是学术界关注的焦点。传统的基于EKC曲线的经济计量学方法一般是对经济与排放历史数据的相关关系研究,不能很好地反映二者之间的动力学机制。为此本文在内生经济增长模型Moon-Sonn基础上进行改进,首先从理论上得到了最优经济增长率与能源强度之间存在倒U曲线关系的必要条件,即能源的产出弹性小于0.5;接着将投入产出分析得到的反映技术进步下的能源强度代入模型,对中国未来经济增长路径进行了预测,同时得到了最优增长路径下的能源消费走势,进而通过对能源消费结构和不同能源品种的碳排放系数的预测和估计,以及对分品种能源碳排放的汇总计算得到了中国未来能源消费所产生的总的碳排放走势。结果显示,在当前技术进步速率下,我国分别在2043年和2040年达到能源消费高峰和碳排放高峰。此外,本文对能源强度不同下降速率对能源消费高峰的影响进行模拟发现,当降速为4.5%5%时,能源高峰将出现在2040年前,此时的人均GDP为10万元左右,与OECD国家的高峰时收入一致;而且分3种情景模拟了可再生能源替代政策对碳排放高峰的影响,发现提高可再生能源的比重可以明显降低碳排放量,但对高峰年份到来的时间影响甚微。</p>
[73]Nie Rui, Zhang Tao, Wang Di.The scenario analysis on energy consumption and carbon emissions based on environmental loads model.
Journal of Natural Resources, 2010, 25(9): 1557-1564.
https://doi.org/10.11849/zrzyxb.2010.09.015Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
利用环境负荷模型与&quot;脱钩&quot;理论,对江苏未来中长期的经济发展、能源需求与CO<sub>2</sub>排放进行了情景分析,并结合当前的环境政策,对三种情景下主要指标的参数和结果进行了设计与分析。研究表明,资源节约型与环境友好型社会的构建,低碳情景是江苏能源-经济-社会的协调发展最合适、也是最现实的方案;通过不同情景的比较,认为低碳情景的实现一定程度上是以减缓经济增长来实现节能减排目标的;低碳情景下能源需求与CO<sub>2</sub>排放也将明显快速增加,与2007年相比,2030年能源需求总量将增加1.431倍,碳排放总量将达到15 655&times;10<sup>4</sup> t,未来20 a能源资源的有效供应与合理利用成为制约低碳经济发展的瓶颈因素。最后给出了实现节能减排、促进低碳经济发展的相关建议。
[聂锐, 张涛, 王迪. 基于IPAT模型的江苏省能源消费与碳排放情景研究
. 自然资源学报, 2010, 25(9): 1557-1564.]
https://doi.org/10.11849/zrzyxb.2010.09.015Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
利用环境负荷模型与&quot;脱钩&quot;理论,对江苏未来中长期的经济发展、能源需求与CO<sub>2</sub>排放进行了情景分析,并结合当前的环境政策,对三种情景下主要指标的参数和结果进行了设计与分析。研究表明,资源节约型与环境友好型社会的构建,低碳情景是江苏能源-经济-社会的协调发展最合适、也是最现实的方案;通过不同情景的比较,认为低碳情景的实现一定程度上是以减缓经济增长来实现节能减排目标的;低碳情景下能源需求与CO<sub>2</sub>排放也将明显快速增加,与2007年相比,2030年能源需求总量将增加1.431倍,碳排放总量将达到15 655&times;10<sup>4</sup> t,未来20 a能源资源的有效供应与合理利用成为制约低碳经济发展的瓶颈因素。最后给出了实现节能减排、促进低碳经济发展的相关建议。
[74]Shi Minjun, Wang Yan, Zhang Zhuoying, et al.Regional carbon footprint and interregional transfer of carbon emissions in China.
Acta Geographica Sinica, 2012, 67(10): 1327-1338.
Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
减排责任的区域分解需要科学评价各地区的排放责任。碳足迹可以全面客观地评价为满足消费而进行的生产的生命周期碳排放水平, 除了生产过程的直接碳排放, 也包括生产过程中所消耗的中间产品的隐含碳排放。应用2007 年各省区投入产出模型和2002 年中国省区间投入产出模型, 定量测算了各省区的碳足迹和省区间的碳排放转移。结果显示, 各省区之间碳足迹和人均碳足迹存在显著的差异。碳足迹较大的省份为经济大省, 主要分布在北方地区;人均碳足迹较高的省份主要是北京、上海等中心城市和能源富集区域及重化工基地;中国存在着从能源富集区域和重化工基地分布区域向经济发达区域和产业结构不完整的欠发达区域的碳排放空间转移。上述结果表明, 人均碳足迹高的经济发达省份应承担较大的减排责任, 能源富集区域和重化工基地分布区域有相当一部分的碳排放是为沿海发达省份和产业结构不完整的欠发达省份提供电力、原材料等高碳产品所致, 减排责任的区域分解需要考虑碳排放空间转移的因素, 适当减轻能源富集区域和重化工基地分布区域的减排责任, 或使沿海发达省份向能源富集区域和重化工区域提供资金和技术上的扶持, 帮助这些区域提高能源利用效率, 减少碳排放。
[石敏俊, 王妍, 张卓颖, . 中国各省区碳足迹与碳排放空间转移
. 地理学报, 2012, 67(10): 1327-1338.]
Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
减排责任的区域分解需要科学评价各地区的排放责任。碳足迹可以全面客观地评价为满足消费而进行的生产的生命周期碳排放水平, 除了生产过程的直接碳排放, 也包括生产过程中所消耗的中间产品的隐含碳排放。应用2007 年各省区投入产出模型和2002 年中国省区间投入产出模型, 定量测算了各省区的碳足迹和省区间的碳排放转移。结果显示, 各省区之间碳足迹和人均碳足迹存在显著的差异。碳足迹较大的省份为经济大省, 主要分布在北方地区;人均碳足迹较高的省份主要是北京、上海等中心城市和能源富集区域及重化工基地;中国存在着从能源富集区域和重化工基地分布区域向经济发达区域和产业结构不完整的欠发达区域的碳排放空间转移。上述结果表明, 人均碳足迹高的经济发达省份应承担较大的减排责任, 能源富集区域和重化工基地分布区域有相当一部分的碳排放是为沿海发达省份和产业结构不完整的欠发达省份提供电力、原材料等高碳产品所致, 减排责任的区域分解需要考虑碳排放空间转移的因素, 适当减轻能源富集区域和重化工基地分布区域的减排责任, 或使沿海发达省份向能源富集区域和重化工区域提供资金和技术上的扶持, 帮助这些区域提高能源利用效率, 减少碳排放。
[75]Yao Liang, Liu Jingru.Transfer of carbon emissions between China's eight major regions. China Population,
Resources and Environment, 2010, 20(12): 16-19.
https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-2104.2010.12.004URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
我国国土幅员辽阔,各区域的经济发展水平和产业结构差异很大。在全国尺度上,发展低碳经济需要切实贯彻区域统筹原则,这就需要对中国区域间的碳排放转移问题进行深入分析。本研究利用EIO-LCA方法及1997年中国区域间投入产出表来核算中国八大区域间产品(服务)以及隐含的碳排放在区域之间流动和转移总量。研究发现,经济拉动作用收支方面,东北区域、京津区域、南部沿海区域、西北区域和西南区域对区域经济拉动作用总量大于其承接其他区域拉动作用的总量,北部沿海区域、东部沿海区域和中部区域反之。区域间隐含的碳排放转移收支方面,北部沿海区域和中部区域碳排放转入量大于转出量,承接了其他区域的高碳负荷产业转移,其他六个区域情况相反。另外,本研究还采用万元碳排放量表示区域间经济拉动的碳负荷系数,来衡量经济拉动作用的碳环境友好程度,即碳效率。区域承接的拉动作用的碳效率从大到小顺序是:京津,西南,东部沿海,北部沿海,西北,东北,南部沿海,中部区域。
[姚亮, 刘晶茹. 中国八大区域间碳排放转移研究
. 中国人口·资源与环境, 2010, 20(12): 16-19.]
https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-2104.2010.12.004URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
我国国土幅员辽阔,各区域的经济发展水平和产业结构差异很大。在全国尺度上,发展低碳经济需要切实贯彻区域统筹原则,这就需要对中国区域间的碳排放转移问题进行深入分析。本研究利用EIO-LCA方法及1997年中国区域间投入产出表来核算中国八大区域间产品(服务)以及隐含的碳排放在区域之间流动和转移总量。研究发现,经济拉动作用收支方面,东北区域、京津区域、南部沿海区域、西北区域和西南区域对区域经济拉动作用总量大于其承接其他区域拉动作用的总量,北部沿海区域、东部沿海区域和中部区域反之。区域间隐含的碳排放转移收支方面,北部沿海区域和中部区域碳排放转入量大于转出量,承接了其他区域的高碳负荷产业转移,其他六个区域情况相反。另外,本研究还采用万元碳排放量表示区域间经济拉动的碳负荷系数,来衡量经济拉动作用的碳环境友好程度,即碳效率。区域承接的拉动作用的碳效率从大到小顺序是:京津,西南,东部沿海,北部沿海,西北,东北,南部沿海,中部区域。
[76]Xie Shichen, Chen Changhong, Li Li, et al.The energy related carbon dioxide emission inventory and carbon flow chart in Shanghai city.
China Environmental Science, 2009, 29(11): 1215-1220.
Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
基于上海市能源统计数据,参照IPCC(2006)方法,测算了上海市能源CO2排放清单,并绘制了2007年上海市碳流通图.结果表明,上海市能源相关的CO2排放总量从1995年的1.10亿t增长到2007年的2.01亿t,期间年均增长率为5.0%.其中“交通”对应的CO2排放量增长最为迅速,年均增长率达15.1%;而“热电厂”的CO2排放量增幅逐渐变缓,其原因为近年上海市外来电力比重增大.2007年“热电厂”、“工业与建筑业”、“交通”、“商业”、“居民生活”与“农业”各部分CO2排放分担率分别为35.4%、34.4%、23.8%、4.0%、2.0%、0.4%.由2007年上海市碳流通图可见,15.6%的煤炭直接由终端使用,这不利于能源效率的提高与污染物的减排;成品油存在较多的交叉流通,若能够减少不必要的流通,不但能够缓解成品油的运输,还能够减少其在转运过程中的输配损失.
[谢士晨, 陈长虹, 李莉, . 上海市能源消费 CO2排放清单与碳流通图
. 中国环境科学, 2009, 29(11): 1215-1220.]
Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
基于上海市能源统计数据,参照IPCC(2006)方法,测算了上海市能源CO2排放清单,并绘制了2007年上海市碳流通图.结果表明,上海市能源相关的CO2排放总量从1995年的1.10亿t增长到2007年的2.01亿t,期间年均增长率为5.0%.其中“交通”对应的CO2排放量增长最为迅速,年均增长率达15.1%;而“热电厂”的CO2排放量增幅逐渐变缓,其原因为近年上海市外来电力比重增大.2007年“热电厂”、“工业与建筑业”、“交通”、“商业”、“居民生活”与“农业”各部分CO2排放分担率分别为35.4%、34.4%、23.8%、4.0%、2.0%、0.4%.由2007年上海市碳流通图可见,15.6%的煤炭直接由终端使用,这不利于能源效率的提高与污染物的减排;成品油存在较多的交叉流通,若能够减少不必要的流通,不但能够缓解成品油的运输,还能够减少其在转运过程中的输配损失.
[77]Chen S, Chen B.Network environ perspective for urban metabolism and carbon emissions: A case study of Vienna, Austria.
Environmental Science and Technology, 2012, 46(8): 4498-4506.
[本文引用: 1]
[78]Zhao R, Huang X, Zhong T, et al.Carbon flow of urban system and its policy implications: The case of Nanjing.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2014, 33(5): 589-601.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.02.020URL [本文引用: 2]摘要
China is now in the process of rapid urbanization. City壮s operating efficiency was directly determined by the scale and efficiency of energy consumption and flow. The pattern, scale and efficiency of urban carbon flow are not only important indicators that reflect urban efficiency and sustainable development, but also important references in the formulating low-carbon and sustainable energy polices for cities. Through establishing a theoretical framework and calculation method, this paper studied the carbon flows of Nanjing urban system in three different levels. It shows that urban production and transportation system, urban living system, rural production system and rural living systems are the major part of urban system in the carbon flow. The carbon flows between Nanjing and the external system, was much higher than the carbon flows among different internal subsystems. If the embodied carbon is taken into account, carbon flow from the urban to rural system of Nanjing was clearly greater than the flow in the opposite direction. With economic development and the implement of energy-saving and emission reduction policy, the carbon productivity and carbon flow efficiency in Nanjing has improved significantly since 2000. Fossil energy consumption, urbanization, agricultural activities, rural life demands and trade are key factors with major impact on urban carbon flows in Nanjing. Therefore, adjusting industrial structure, urban expansion control, and developing renewable energy are main measures to realize sustainable development of Najing city. Furthermore, the dual urban鈥搑ural structure in Nanjing brought large exchanges of products and embodied carbon between urban and rural areas, indicates that urban carbon flow and its efficiency was highly influenced by urban鈥搑ural structure, which will further aggravate carbon flow burden of urban systems.
[79]Fang K, Heijungs R, Snoo G R.Theoretical exploration for the combination of the ecological, energy, carbon, and water footprints: Overview of a footprint family.
Ecological Indicators, 2014, 36: 508-518.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2013.08.017Magsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
Over the past two decades, a continuously expanding list of footprint-style indicators has been introduced to the scientific community with the aim of raising public awareness of how humanity exerts pressures on the environment. A deeper understanding of the connections and interactions between different footprints is required in an attempt to support policy makers in the measurement and choice of environmental impact mitigation strategies. Combining a selection of footprints that address different aspects of environmental issues into an integrated system is, therefore, a natural step. This paper starts with the idea of developing a footprint family from which most important footprints can be compared and integrated. On the basis of literature review in related fields, the ecological, energy, carbon, and water footprints are employed as selected indicators to define a footprint family. A brief survey is presented to provide background information on each of the footprints with an emphasis on their main characteristics in a comparative sense; that is, the footprints differ in many aspects more than just the impacts they are addressed. This allows the four footprints to be complementarily used in assessing environmental impacts associated with natural resource use and waste discharge. We evaluate the performance of the footprint family in terms of data availability, coverage complementarity, methodological consistency, and policy relevance and propose solutions and suggestions for further improvement. The key conclusions are that the footprint family, which captures a broad spectrum of sustainability issues, is able to offer a more complete picture of environmental complexity for policy makers and, in particular, in national-level studies. The research provides new insights into the distinction between environmental impact assessment and sustainability evaluation, properly serving as a reference for multidisciplinary efforts in estimating planetary boundaries for global sustainability. (C) 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
[80]Felzer BS.Carbon, nitrogen, and water response to climate and land use changes in Pennsylvania during the 20th and 21st centuries.
Ecological Modelling, 2012, 240: 49-63.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2012.05.003URLMagsci [本文引用: 1]摘要
Future climate projections indicate that Pennsylvania will get significantly warmer and wetter due to continued increases in atmospheric greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations. Using the Terrestrial Ecosystem Model version Hydro2 (TEM-Hydro2), this study explores the effect of different climate and land use scenarios on carbon, nitrogen, and water dynamics during the 20th and 21st centuries. TEM-Hydro2 runs are forced by historical 20th century climate data and by 21st century climate projections from the NCAR CCSM3.0 IPCC A2 and B1 scenarios, a relatively high and low GHG emissions scenario, respectively. Regrowing forests are the only ecosystem with positive Net Carbon Exchange (NCE) and sequestered more than 12,000 g C m(-2) during the 20th century. The highest rates of leaching of dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) occurred in fertilized croplands in the 20th century. Twenty first century runoff increases by 30% in the A2 scenario and 20% in the B1 scenario, but DIN leaching only increases in the A2 scenario. DIN leaching depends upon both runoff and available inorganic nitrogen, which decreases due to high productivity and enhanced plant nitrogen uptake. The effect of increasing urbanization in the 21st century is to reduce NCE by about 34% in both climate scenarios, while water runoff increases by 5% and DIN leaching decreases by 17%. The reduced leaching is the result of converting agricultural land to suburban areas, which are a combination of turflawn and forests, both of which have lower leaching rates than croplands or pastures. Incorporating realistic forest stand age substantially increases the NCE but has little effect on runoff or DIN leaching. Maize yields decrease in the A2 scenario due to the excessive leaching, but increase in the B1 scenario. These results illustrate why it is important to include scenarios of both GHG emissions and realistic land use changes in model projections of the regional impacts of climate change in the 21st century. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V All rights reserved.
[81]Ababaei B, Sohrabi T, Mirzaei F.Development and application of a planning support system to assess strategies related to land and water resources for adaptation to climate change.
Climate Risk Management, 2014, 6: 39-50.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crm.2014.11.001URL [本文引用: 1]摘要
This study has developed and applied a planning support system (PSS) – a tool for planners to analyze and choose the best policy instrument in order to adapt to climate change in the Qazvin irrigation and drainage network, located in the central part of Iran that is mainly supplied by the Taleghan reservoir. A comprehensive weather generator was developed that was capable of regenerating statistical characteristics and linear correlation between neighboring stations. After downscaling monthly outputs from General Circulation Models (GCMs) using the Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) interpolation method, the weather generator was used to generate daily time series for the base case and projected climate change scenarios. This study simulated the Taleghan reservoir daily inflow under projected climate change scenarios using the data fusion method where outputs from the most representative Artificial Neural Networks and Hammerstein–Wiener models were “fused” to simulate the reservoir daily inflow. Results showed a decrease in mean daily inflow in almost all months. Biophysical input coefficients were estimated using the Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer (DSSAT) crop models under all climate scenarios. The projected production of all studied crops can vary between 86% and 122% of the potential production under the base-case scenario. In addition, it was revealed that the net irrigation requirement for crops will decrease by 12% on an average. The main goal of the PSS was to maximize the total net income for the region. It can be concluded that reducing bank loan interest rate and setting two different water prices for surface and pressurized irrigation systems can be seen as the best management practices in the region.
[82]Rajan N, Maas S J, Ale S, et al.Impact of biofuel induced land use change on energy, water, carbon and greenhouse balances of the Southeast U.S
.Cotton Belt region.
URL [本文引用: 1]
[83]National Renewable Energy Laboratory.URL [本文引用: 1]
相关话题/能源 系统 土地 资源 过程