俄罗斯滑雪场空间格局及可达性

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刘传瀛^,¹, 黄季夏^,¹^,², 王利², 杨林生², 葛全胜²

1.北京林业大学教育部森林培育与保护重点实验室,北京 100083

2.中国科学院地理科学与资源研究所陆地表层格局与模拟重点实验室,北京 100101

Spatial pattern and accessibility of Russian ski resorts

LIU Chuanying^,¹, HUANG Jixia^,¹^,², WANG Li², YANG Linsheng², GE Quansheng²

1. Key Laboratory of Forest Cultivation and Protection, Ministry of Education, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China

2. Key Laboratory of Land Surface Pattern and Simulation, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, CAS, Beijing 100101, China

通讯作者: 黄季夏,男,安徽桐城人,副教授,主要从事空间数据分析研究。E-mail: huangjx@bjfu.edu.cn

收稿日期:2020-05-27修回日期:2020-09-21网络出版日期:2021-01-25

基金资助:

中国科学院重点部署项目.ZDRW-ZS-2017-4
中国科学院先导科技专项.XDA190705

Received:2020-05-27Revised:2020-09-21Online:2021-01-25
作者简介 About authors
刘传瀛,女,山东济南人,硕士研究生,主要从事空间数据分析研究。E-mail: lancerchuanying@163.com

摘要
俄罗斯滑雪旅游产业的发展已相对成熟。旅游多元化发展与共建“冰上丝绸之路”的契机为中俄两国的冰雪旅游市场带来了巨大的发展潜力。本文运用空间分析方法量化并探究俄罗斯旅游滑雪场的空间分布特征,通过可达性指标评价滑雪场所的可接近测度。结果发现：①俄罗斯滑雪场整体上“西密东疏”,并且呈现出6大聚集区域的空间分布格局;②滑雪场在俄罗斯境内平均可达时间约为15 h,6 h以内的高可达性区域约占全国总面积的40%,可达性较好的区域多连片分布在东欧平原与西西伯利亚南部山地,且呈现向交通干线聚集分布的趋势;③以莫斯科为中心的联邦主体区位优势较好,冰雪旅游规模与实力最强;乌拉尔山脉东西侧联邦主体与滑雪场所联系紧密。本文通过归纳俄罗斯滑雪场数据空间分布规律及布局优劣,提出关键开发建议,为中国的冰雪旅游事业提供实践参考。
关键词： 滑雪场;冰雪旅游;滑雪资源;空间格局;可达性;区位优势;俄罗斯

Abstract

The development of the Russian ski tourism industry has been relatively mature. Diversification of tourism and the opportunity to build the Polar Silk Road have brought great potential for the growth of the ice-snow tourism market in China and Russia. In this study, the spatial distribution characteristics of tourist ski resorts in Russia were quantified and examined with spatial analysis methods, which result in an index to evaluate the accessibility of ski resorts. There are three major findings. First, the ski resorts in Russia are dense in the west and sparse in the east, and their distribution is concentrated in six regions. Second, ski resorts in Russia can be reached within 15 hours on average. The areas of high accessibility, with travel time less than 6 hours, account for 40% of the total area of Russia. These regions with better accessibility are located in the mountainous areas of the East European Plain and the southern West Siberia, and tend to cluster along the main traffic lines. Finally, the federal districts surrounding Moscow have more geographical advantages with an ice-snow tourism industry of the largest scale and strength. Federations on both sides of the Ural Mountains have close relationship to the ski resorts. This article summarized the spatial distribution pattern as well as the advantages and disadvantages of Russia’s ski resorts with regard to their spatial layout. Key development recommendations were also put forward in this article to provide practical advices for China’s ice-snow tourism industry.

Keywords：ski resorts;ice-snow tourism;ski tourism resources;spatial pattern;accessibility;potential location advantage;Russia

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本文引用格式
刘传瀛, 黄季夏, 王利, 杨林生, 葛全胜. 俄罗斯滑雪场空间格局及可达性. 资源科学[J], 2021, 43(1): 197-208 doi:10.18402/resci.2021.01.16
LIU Chuanying, HUANG Jixia, WANG Li, YANG Linsheng, GE Quansheng. Spatial pattern and accessibility of Russian ski resorts. RESOURCES SCIENCE[J], 2021, 43(1): 197-208 doi:10.18402/resci.2021.01.16

1 引言

滑雪旅游是一项依托冰雪资源,集休闲、运动、观光、度假于一体的新兴专项旅游形式^[1,2]。全球的滑雪旅游正处于高速发展阶段,滑雪旅游是滑雪产业的基础^[3],为各国冰雪旅游产业的开拓提供了机遇。目前,全球整体年滑雪人次约达4亿,近100个国家建设超过6000个滑雪场所^[4]。其中,40％的滑雪胜地聚集于欧洲的阿尔卑斯地区,奥地利、法国、意大利与美国等西方国家是滑雪旅游业中的主导国;东方亚太地区滑雪者占全球的15%,滑雪旅游市场不成熟,但具有巨大的挖掘和发展潜力。滑雪在俄罗斯普及率高,已成为大众化、常态化的体育运动,其滑雪旅游产业的发展给予亚太国家很多启示^[5]。

俄罗斯的滑雪旅游已较为成熟^[6]。自20世纪50年代,俄罗斯滑雪运动与旅游相结合,进行扩张和发展。至21世纪初,滑雪与旅游的融合向多元化发展并趋于成熟,衍生出“冰雪旅游”。自2012年以来,俄罗斯滑雪场数量显著增加,外来游客数与本土滑雪者人次稳步上升。2014上半年索契冬奥会的举办进一步推广了俄罗斯冰雪文化。此外,跨境旅游的增加,进一步释放了俄罗斯滑雪旅游资源的开发需求^[7]。汲取俄罗斯滑雪旅游产业的发展经验,对完善我国滑雪旅游产业基础设施建设,科学有序地规划中国滑雪旅游产业发展路线有重要的指导意义。

从可达性角度分析旅游资源区位优势和交通建设,对滑雪产业的规划具有重要意义。可达性是指从某一位置通过交通网络达到目的地的便利程度,是区域经济发展的重要影响因素^[8,9]。该指标被广泛应用于城市建设、区位规划、交通布局等多个领域,以铁路、公路为载体研究交通网络对区域旅游空间结构的影响成为可达性研究热点^[8,9,10,11]。国外****从不同角度探究了交通运输对旅游目的地发展的影响。Prideaux^[12]通过分析交通与旅游目的地之间的可接近性关系,Khadaroo等^[13]建立引力模型概念,发现道路基础设施完善的区域更吸引旅游点聚集;从游客视角出发,Kozak^[14]与Alkahtani等^[15]****认为交通的便捷可达度影响旅行者的出行决策与满意程度,是提高景点吸引力的重要决定因素。国内****采用多种可达性指标对旅游资源空间结构进行综合评价。靳诚等^[16]运用最短路径选择方法计算城市景点的空间可达性,并针对不同圈层的景点可达性进行优化;潘竟虎等^[17]用最近邻指数、K指数、成本加权距离算法等,探究了国家湿地公园的空间分布特征,从整体和县域尺度进行了可达性测度分析,从而为国家均衡配置生态资源提供参考;蒋海兵等^[18]借助最短路径算法和网络分析模块量化可达时间,认为高铁加强了客源地与旅游景点之间的联系;杨蕊萌^[19]分析了高铁通车前后的冰雪景点的加权旅行时间与经济潜力的可达性时空变化,提议应加强东北三省各区域均衡发展。众****采用空间统计学方法及可达性指标评估旅游资源的空间结构及区域效应,提出空间布局优化建议,不仅能够使人们外出休闲更加便利,还能够最大限度地合理配置并利用旅游资源^[20,21,22]。

近年来,全球化进程加速使得滑雪旅游成为国内外旅游市场研究的热点。国外****对滑雪运动及冰雪旅游研究开始较早。第一类研究通过探究滑雪旅游资源内部的构成,发现旅游者的年龄、收入,旅游地的景观结构、设施配置都能够体现其价值^[23,24],外部气候环境也会给冰雪资源的经济效益带来潜在影响^[25];第二类研究是通过对市场与消费者的实际调查,对雪场的环境价值及未来市场趋势进行评价^[26,27,28]。国内****对滑雪旅游的研究集中在东北地区,并结合发达国家冰雪旅游开发的成功经验,为中国的冰雪旅游建言献策。有****认为中俄两国的冰雪产业合作空间具有巨大的潜力与优势,俄罗斯冰雪旅游度假村项目对中国具有启示意义^[29,30,31];还有****揭示了中国滑雪场“小集聚、大分散”的空间形态格局,提出立足于“冰雪—气候”驱动机制,推进冰雪运动“南展西扩”战略^[2],,并致力于提升人工造雪技术^[32]。

国内外关于旅游资源的空间分布及可达性方面的研究较为全面,但以滑雪旅游资源作为研究对象的文献,集中在对具体案例的分析和评述,基于人文层面提出建议与对策,在大尺度格局中对滑雪旅游资源的分布规律,及其与交通设施的联系的相关探讨存在不足。本文尝试基于现有俄罗斯滑雪场调查数据,从资源科学角度探究其分布格局并测算空间可达性,借鉴俄罗斯滑雪旅游发展优越区域的布局优势,提出全局可达性优化途径,为我国滑雪旅游资源的规划建设提供新思路,为2022年北京即将举办的冬奥会提供参考,进而为中国冰雪旅游事业的可持续发展提供理论基础。

2 数据与方法

2.1 研究区域

本文选择俄罗斯联邦（简称俄罗斯,位于26°E—170°W,41°N—82°N之间）作为研究区域,该国地跨亚欧两洲,位于欧洲东部和亚洲大陆的北部,由85个联邦主体组成。北邻北冰洋,东濒太平洋,西北临波罗的海、芬兰湾。俄罗斯地势南高北低、西低东高,西部地形以平原和山地为主,东部以高原和平原为主。四大地形自西往东依次为东欧平原、西西伯利亚平原、中西伯利亚高原和东西伯利亚山地,主要山脉有乌拉尔山脉、大高加索山脉与西伯利亚边境处山地。俄罗斯大部分领土处于北温带和北寒带,自西向东大陆性气候逐渐增强,冬季漫长寒冷。俄罗斯的地势与气候具有发展冰雪旅游的天然优势。

滑雪场所能有效代表某地区滑雪旅游资源的分布情况。本文滑雪场所数据来源于俄罗斯国家旅游门户网站（https://russia.travel/）,数据信息包括场所名称、地址、简介、雪场网站与联系方式等,结合俄罗斯滑雪协会网站（http://www.rsaski.ru/）、全球滑雪网（https://www.skiresort.info/）及其他滑雪旅游网站查漏补缺,筛选掉严重缺乏信息的滑雪场,并将其空间坐标通过Google earth定位生成shp矢量点数据。截至2018年,共统计了226个具有滑雪道,经营良好的滑雪场。

交通网络是实现空间可接近性的基础。可达性研究选取的道路网络包括铁路、公路（一、二级干道）,河流与湖泊作为交通受阻区域。各类型交通及水域矢量图层来源于哈佛大学地理分析中心worldmap平台（http://worldmap.harvard.edu）与Natural Earth公共数据集平台（http://www.naturalearthdata.com/）,地形数据ETOPO1 Ice Surface数据集来源于NOAA地形数据网站（https://www.nesdis.noaa.gov/）。在ArcGIS 10.2环境下对数据进行配准和分层矢量化处理,地理坐标系选择WGS84,投影坐标系采用Albers圆锥等面积投影。

2.2 研究方法

基于俄罗斯研究区的空间尺度与数据信息特征,本文采用空间分析方法,对滑雪场所的空间分布格局与可达性进行探讨。首先利用最近邻分析与核密度估计分别计算滑雪场所间的距离与密度,以揭示俄罗斯旅游滑雪场的聚集特征^[18]。然后通过累计耗费距离法计算可接近性时间,该指标与俄罗斯滑雪场所整体空间格局特征和交通设施分布相关;在此基础上,基于加权平均旅行时间与区位优势潜力指标,综合考虑滑雪场所的吸引力与联邦主体的区位优势,分别反映二者之间的联系紧密程度与空间相互作用^[32]。

2.2.1 空间点模式分析

（1）平均最近邻分析

平均最近邻分析（Nearest Neighbor Analysis）通过计算空间范围中的每个点要素之间的平均距离与理论最近邻距离的比值,即最近邻指数NNI,说明点要素随机分布的程度。如果NNI<1,则为集聚分布;如果NNI≥1,则趋向离散或随机分布。其计算公式为：

（1）

NNI = \frac{r_{obs}}{r_{\exp}}

（2）

r_{\exp} = 0.5 \sqrt[]{\frac{A}{n}}

（3）

r_{obs} = \frac{\sum d_{i}}{n}

式中：

r_{obs}

为最邻近点对之间平均距离的实际观测值;

r_{\exp}

为最近邻点对之间平均距离的预期观测值;

A

表示研究区域面积;

n

为俄罗斯滑雪场所总数;

d_{i}

为滑雪场

i

的与其最邻近滑雪场的距离。

（2）核密度估计

核密度估计（Kernel Density Estimation, KDE）是用以估计未知区域的密度函数,属于非参数检验方法之一。通过计算滑雪场在周围邻域中的密度,可直观反映出离散测量值在连续区域内的分布情况,得到俄罗斯滑雪场所的空间分布规律。

（4）

f (x) = \frac{1}{m h^{d}} \overset{m}{\sum_{i = 1}} K [\frac{x - x_{i}}{h}]

式中：

f

为概率密度;

x_{1}, x_{2}, ?, x_{i}

为独立分布样本点;

K [\frac{x - x_{i}}{h}]

为核密度;

h

为宽度;m为宽度范围内的样本点数量;d为数据维度。

2.2.2 空间可达性分析

（1）累计耗费距离算法

可达性与空间区位条件、交通基础设施优劣和地区经济发展水平关系密切。在本文中,滑雪场所可达性定义为从区域内任意一点到目标滑雪场所需要的时间,说明其空间分布格局与现实服务情况。本文利用ArcGIS中的累计耗费距离算法（Cost Distance）计算可达性,公式为：

（5）

F = \frac{1}{2} \overset{n}{\sum_{i = 1}} (C_{k} + C_{k + 1})

式中：

F

为第

k

个像元的可接近时间;

C_{k}

为第

k

个像元的时间耗费值;

C_{k + 1}

为第

k

+1个像元的时间耗费值;

k

为像元总数。通过该式计算赋值表面竖直或水平方向上累计距离的耗费时间^[18]。

可达性算法的实现需要将原矢量底图栅格化,结合研究区尺度、滑雪场所选址特殊性与实际交通情况,不同地表类型对应不同的运输方式和出行速度,将平均出行10 km所花费的平均时间（min）为栅格设定时间成本的参考值^[33,34,35]。根据俄罗斯境内对交通道路行车速度的标准,并参考前人研究成果,采用表1所示的时间成本值,其中河流与水域的耗费时间代表通行困难区域。

Table 1
表1
表1不同交通方式与用地类型的速度与时间成本值^[36]
Table 1Time cost value of different transportations modes and land use types^[36]

运输方式	铁路	一级公路	二级公路	陆地	河流	湖泊
速度/(km/h)	100	120	80	20	-	-
时间成本/min	6	5	7.5	30	300	600

新窗口打开|下载CSV

依据表格对矢量图层进行时间成本赋值,将要素栅格化,进而对栅格赋予相应的时间成本值,根据实际情况取舍重叠的运输方式,生成基础成本栅格图。调用ArcGIS成本距离功能生成雪场可达性分析图,图上任意栅格单元的值代表从该栅格单元出发,到达最近距离滑雪场所的时间。通过计算,得到俄罗斯滑雪场可达性的扩散结果。将可达性划分为6个时间段,即0~6 h、7~12 h、13~24 h、25~48 h、49~56 h和>56 h,分别计算这6个时间段在空间上的分布频率,分析各个时间段所占的区域面积大小关系。

（2）联邦主体整体可达性

为了更好地从宏观上把握区域内滑雪场所的整体可达性差异和区域效应,以俄罗斯经济政治活动行政区联邦主体为单元展开计算。联邦主体之间自然资源与人文条件差异较大,可客观反映滑雪场所的区位优势。本文以82个联邦主体为基本单位（左上角的加里宁格勒州飞地区域、克里米亚共和国、直辖市塞瓦斯托波尔与俄罗斯其他区域连通性较差,故不参与计算）,根据式（6）对联邦主体整体滑雪场所可接近性进行计算,借助自然断裂法将其划分为5个等级。通过计算联邦主体内栅格可达性的平均值来反映整个联邦主体的滑雪场所可达性^[37]。具体公式为：

（6）

R_{j} = \overset{j}{\sum_{k = 1}} \frac{F_{k}}{e_{j}}

式中：

R_{j}

为第

j

个联邦主体的整体可达性;

F_{k}

为联邦主体第

k

个栅格的滑雪场所可达性;

e_{j}

为落在第

j

个联邦主体范围内栅格的总数。

（3）联邦主体加权平均旅行时间

加权平均旅行时间是通过结合滑雪场的吸引力与服务能力因素,进而衡量地区发展水平的可达性指标。数值越低,表示联邦主体可接近时间愈短,与周边滑雪场所联系愈紧密。公式如下：

（7）

I_{j} = \frac{\overset{n}{\sum_{i = 1}} T_{ij} \times M_{i}}{\overset{n}{\sum_{j = 1}} M_{i}}

式中：

I_{j}

为各联邦主体

j

的可达性;

T_{ij}

表示滑雪场所

i

与联邦主体

j

之间的出行抗阻（距离或时间）,在本文中该值是以各联邦首府作为耗费距离原点,调用ArcGIS的成本距离功能生成等时圈图,提取各滑雪场所至各联邦首府的最短时间距离;

M_{i}

为第i个滑雪场所的服务能力,本文选择该滑雪场所每雪季接待的游客量来表征,参考国内外关于滑雪场所的标准^[38,39,40],文中设置滑雪度假村每雪季接待游客量为5万人次,滑雪胜地为4万人次,滑雪场为2万人次;n为滑雪场所点总数量。

（4）区位优势

潜力模型指标能够在评价空间可达性的基础上,综合考虑不同滑雪场所的服务能力、联邦主体至滑雪场所的空间距离衰减等因素,更加贴合实际现状。指标数值与联邦经济实力成正比。公式如下：

（8）

P_{j} = \overset{n}{\sum_{i = 1}} \frac{M_{i}}{T_{ij}^{a}}

式中：

P_{j}

表示联邦主体

j

的区位优势潜力,本文选择联邦首府作为点元素进行计算;a表示出行摩擦系数,一般简化计算,取值为1^[41,42]。

3 结果与分析

3.1 俄罗斯滑雪场所的空间分布格局

根据俄罗斯滑雪场所空间分布图（图1）,发现俄罗斯滑雪场所总体呈“西密东疏”趋势。滑雪场所在东欧平原、高加索山脉与西西伯利亚平原的阿尔泰山脉分布最为密集,西北部摩尔曼斯克州、中部乌拉尔山脉的滑雪场所数量较多,少数分布在东南部滨海边疆区,远东区域滑雪场所分布零散,数量稀少。滑雪场所在俄罗斯西部呈集聚分布,东部呈离散分布,体现了其空间结构的差异性。滑雪场所数量排名前5的联邦主体为莫斯科州、科麦罗沃州、摩尔曼斯克州、阿尔泰共和国与彼尔姆边疆区,数量均超过10个,雪场最多的联邦主体莫斯科州共有18个滑雪场。

图1

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图1俄罗斯滑雪场所及主要地形分布

Figure 1Distribution of ski resorts and terrain of Russia

俄罗斯的交通路网集中分布在欧洲区域（图2）。铁路、公路以莫斯科为中心呈放射状分布,亚洲区域交通线稀疏,集中分布在南部。北部区域冻土层厚、面积广,交通线建设困难。滑雪场所聚集区域与交通网络密集区整体呈现一致性。

图2

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图2俄罗斯交通概况图

Figure 2Distribution of transportation networks in Russia

不同类型滑雪场所的分布具有一定差异。根据俄罗斯国家旅游网站上对滑雪场所的统计描述,并结合2017年1月俄罗斯颁布的关于滑雪胜地建设标准及规范^[38],滑雪场所的类型可进一步划分为滑雪度假村、滑雪胜地、滑雪场等（图3）。滑雪度假村规模、占地面积大,具有先进的滑雪设备与国际赛道。大型度假村衍生为滑雪度假胜地,建设包含购物、饮食、休闲娱乐服务的大型商场与各式酒店民宿,并提供旅游观光服务,如冰雕展览、直升机飞行、山地越野等项目,以罗莎库塔（Rosa Khutor）度假胜地为典型代表。滑雪胜地多为常年积雪的山地经开发后形成的滑雪场所,具有基础设施及缆车提升设备,周围建设有餐厅及短期住宿的宾馆。滑雪场多分布于城市近郊或中心,提供交通接送与租赁雪具服务,规模小且较少提供住宿服务。非积雪地区可以通过人工制雪设备,或建造室内滑雪场等方式满足大众需求;滑雪场类型还包括体育运动基地,基地中铺设标准的滑雪赛道供运动员训练,并开设专业滑雪课程。

图3

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图3俄罗斯不同规模滑雪场所分布

Figure 3Distribution of different scales of ski resorts in Russia

大型滑雪度假村集中分布在高加索山脉地区,该地区的地形与积雪条件最适宜进行雪上运动,并在举办索契冬奥会后具有一定的知名度,吸引境内外游客。莫斯科州周边、阿尔泰山脉区域分布着少数大型度假村。滑雪胜地集中分布在乌拉尔山脉东西两侧,乌拉尔山脉雪景优美,其山体起伏度也形成了天然的滑雪坡。滑雪场在俄罗斯境内分布广泛,在各联邦主体城市中心高度密集,在莫斯科州、科麦罗沃州与哈卡斯共和国聚集尤其显著。

使用核密度与平均最近邻工具对滑雪场所空间数据进行分析,揭示俄罗斯滑雪场所的空间分布规律（表2）。结果表明滑雪场所之间的平均观测距离为57.57 km,z检验值高度显著,俄罗斯滑雪场所呈强烈集聚态势,热点区域有6处,从北至南为：摩尔曼斯克州、列宁格勒州、莫斯科州及周边联邦主体、彼尔姆边疆区及周边联邦主体、科麦罗沃州及周边联邦主体与高加索山脉地区。

Table 2
表2
表2滑雪场所最邻近距离指数
Table 2Nearest neighbor index of ski resorts

景点	NNI	分布类型	z得分	p值
滑雪场	0.34	聚集	-18.88	0.00

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莫斯科州滑雪场所聚集区为核心峰值区（图4聚集区1）,周围形成了多处带状集聚的中低密度区域,呈沿南北方向距离衰减的空间分布态势。莫斯科为俄罗斯的经济、文化、政治中心,滑雪场选址充分考虑了交通便利与人口密集的区位优势。位于西西伯利亚南部的科迈罗沃州、阿尔泰边疆区及周边为次高密度聚集区域（图4聚集区2）。科迈罗沃州独特的自然地势使滑雪场所多建立在山地,毗邻阿尔泰山脉处,其东部分散低密度点状集聚区。在彼尔姆边疆区及周边（乌德穆尔特共和国,斯维尔德洛夫斯克州、巴什科尔托斯坦共和国）,滑雪场所在乌拉尔山脉的两侧形成反“C形”空间集聚带（图4聚集区3）,与山脉走向一致。西南边陲滑雪场沿高加索山脉走向形成了中级密度聚集带,冬奥会举办地索契市位于大高加索山脉的北麓（图4聚集区4）。该处聚集区北邻高大山脉,具有俄罗斯最丰富的冰雪资源,大型滑雪度假村都建设于此,邻近欧洲,具有充足的游客客源。位于俄罗斯西北部的摩尔曼斯克与列宁格勒州滑雪场所聚集区呈点状态势,水陆交通便利,人文旅游发达是该区域滑雪场所选址的重要影响因素,滑雪旅游蕴藏较大发展潜力（图4聚集区5、6）。俄罗斯的东北方向整体滑雪场数量与密度均为最低。

图4

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图4俄罗斯滑雪场所核密度分布

Figure 4Distribution of nuclear density of ski resorts in Russia

3.2 俄罗斯滑雪场所可达性分析

3.2.1 可达性总体空间分布特征

俄罗斯滑雪场所的平均可接近性时间为14.79 h,6 h以内的高可达性区域占全国总面积的40.76%,12 h以内可达性区域占比59.45%,可达时间在48 h以上的低可达性区域占4.72%（图5）。

图5

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图5俄罗斯滑雪场所可达性

Figure 5Accessibility of ski resorts in Russia

俄罗斯滑雪场所可达性差异十分明显,总体呈“西南高,东部低”的规律,东欧平原与西西伯利亚平原地区的可接近性基本在24 h之内,高可达性区域呈连片分布,越往东可达性越差,这与地区交通建设和空间区位条件差异存在关联性。俄罗斯西部基础设施完善、旅游市场繁荣等优势条件使冰雪旅游资源聚集于此^[43]。贝加尔湖地区与阿穆尔河附近滑雪场所数量较少,但仍有零星分布,公路交通便利,可接近性相对较好。可接近性最差区域为远东北部,包括克拉斯诺亚尔斯克边疆区、萨哈共和国、楚科奇自治区等联邦主体,大都为气候严酷,发展落后、人口稀少的边境地区,最长可接近时间达到了73 h。

3.2.2 联邦主体滑雪场日程可达性

（1）联邦主体可达性总体特征

俄罗斯联邦主体至滑雪场所的可接近性总体特征为：高可达性的联邦主体聚集于西部平原,呈块状分布;东部联邦可达性低,几乎覆盖整个远东区域（图6）。除加里宁格勒州与联邦直辖市外,可接近性小于2 h的联邦主体共38个,其中33个联邦主体聚集分布于中央联邦管区与相邻的伏尔加联邦管区,占联邦主体总数的39%。高可达性联邦主体在莫斯科州附近呈东西走向,以市场为导向发展滑雪旅游,交通发达,可在短时间内到达滑雪资源点;阿尔泰山脉周围为滑雪资源密集区,冰雪文化历史悠久^[6,44];位于大高加索山脉的高可达性联邦主体呈带状排列,与滑雪场所的分布特征一致。可接近性在3~4 h内的次高可接近性联邦主体环绕在高可接近性联邦主体外侧。摩尔曼斯克州的滑雪场所数量居联邦主体第3,但地处边境,仅与卡累利阿共和国接壤,道路密度低;位于东南方的犹太自治州滑雪场所数量较少,但联邦主体面积较小,因此可达性值相对较高。可达性在5~9 h的中可接近性联邦主体呈块状分散分布,乌拉尔山脉东北部的滑雪场所分布均匀,但道路建设的不完善导致区域的可达时间长;阿尔穆州、外加贝尔边疆区内仅有两个滑雪场所,但公路交通便捷。可达性在9 h以上的联邦主体聚集在西伯利亚联邦管区与远东联邦管区,面积约占俄罗斯领土1/2。

图6

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图6不同联邦主体滑雪场所可达性空间格局

Figure 6Spatial pattern of accessibility of ski resorts in different federations

（2）联邦主体可达滑雪点数量与时间

提取除列宁格勒州、克里米亚共和国和塞瓦斯托波尔外,82个联邦主体到达226个滑雪场所的时间,划分为0~12 h,13~24 h,25~48 h,49~72 h,73~96h,97~120 h,>120 h七个时间段（图7）。12 h之内可到达滑雪场所最多的联邦主体为鞑靼斯坦共和国,共106个,其次为楚瓦什共和国、马里埃尔共和国、基洛夫州与乌里扬诺夫斯克州,均超过100个。位于这些联邦主体内部的滑雪场所数量并不多,但联邦主体可达性强,这是由于上述联邦主体地处滑雪场所莫斯科聚集区与乌拉尔山脉聚集区附近,交通基础设施完善,连通性强,该地区铁路、公路、河流网络体系发达,弥补了本身距离滑雪点较远的不足;至所有滑雪场所花费的总时间最少的联邦主体为斯维尔德洛夫斯克州,位于乌拉尔山脉东侧,其次为乌德穆尔特共和国与彼尔姆边疆区,均属伏尔加河沿岸联邦管区。位于东南部的中可达性联邦主体包括布里亚特共和国及外加贝尔边疆区,地处边境地区与贝加尔湖附近,自然景观丰富,宜建立山地滑雪胜地。俄罗斯东北方位的堪察加边疆区,共有217个滑雪场所需花费120 h以上才能到达,耗费总时长第二的联邦主体为楚科奇自治区。这与远东地区受制于经济条件与地理环境,交通设施不发达,滑雪场所分布稀少密切相关。

图7

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图7联邦主体各时间段内可达到滑雪场所数量比例

Figure 7Proportions of the number of ski resorts accessible within different travel times by federation

（3）联邦主体加权平均旅行时间

各联邦主体加权平均旅行时间量化显示了联邦主体与滑雪场所的关联性（图8）。总体加权旅行时间最短的联邦主体是彼尔姆边疆区,平均花费22.4 h就可达到滑雪场所,可达性最好,表明与周边滑雪场所连通性强;加权旅行时间耗费最久的堪察加边疆区,平均需158.65 h才可到达任一滑雪场所,可达性最差。加权旅行时间值最小的联邦主体均分布在乌拉尔山脉东西两侧,可达时间在24 h 内,该处为滑雪胜地聚集区域,雪场服务水平与吸引力高,首府至滑雪场所加权旅行时间短,联系密切;聚集于东欧平原上的联邦主体加权平均旅行时间次短;地处远东的联邦主体距外界滑雪点跨度大,可达时间长,共计7个联邦主体加权旅行时间在48 h以上。

图8

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图8联邦主体加权平均旅行时间

Figure 8Weighted average travel time of federations

（4）联邦主体滑雪区位优势潜力

各联邦主体区位优势如图9所示,该指标量化了联邦主体对滑雪场所区位效应的大小。其中,莫斯科州的区位优势潜力最大,旅游资源、经济实力最强;其次为莫斯科联邦直辖市与阿尔泰边疆区。摩尔曼斯克州与列宁格勒州旅游滑雪场相对密集,发展态势强。远东地区的萨哈共和国区位潜力优势位居倒数第二,莫斯科州该指标是其20倍之多,差距悬殊。但东部临海的堪察加边疆区与马加丹州区位潜力较大,联邦主体内滑雪场所距首府可达时间短,港口设施完善,适宜建设滑雪旅游休闲综合体面向过境游客^[45],尤其是亚太地区滑雪旅游者。高区位潜力联邦主体呈离散分布,且与核密度分析呈现的滑雪场所聚集区一致,这与滑雪场所分布密集程度和规模均有关。

图9

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图9俄罗斯联邦主体区位优势潜力

Figure 9Regional advantage potential of federations in Russia

4 结论与讨论

4.1 结论

本文以滑雪旅游资源中的滑雪场所为代表,通过空间统计分析和可达性分析两种主要方法对俄罗斯滑雪场所展开评估。通过本文分析可知：

（1）俄罗斯滑雪场具有“西密东疏”的空间分布特点,整体呈现强聚集态势,形成莫斯科州聚集区、阿尔泰边疆聚集区、乌拉尔山脉聚集区、高加索山脉聚集区、摩尔曼斯克州聚集区与列宁格勒州聚集区6大高密度滑雪场所区域的空间分布格局。滑雪场所数量众多,且不同规模的滑雪场所在空间结构上存在差异,这是由道路交通、游客市场、自然环境、基础设施等多区位因子作用的结果。

（2）俄罗斯滑雪场所的空间可接近性较好,平均可达时间约为15 h,6 h以内的高可达性区域约占全国总面积的40%,可达性较好的区域多连片分布在东欧平原与西西伯利亚南部山地处,且呈现向交通干线聚集分布的趋势。西部俄罗斯交通路网最集中,滑雪场所分布最密集,可达性较优,三者相互作用推进共同发展;远东地区交通基础设施薄弱,连通性较差。交通运输系统建设的完善程度影响着地区的可进入性,进而产生区域间滑雪旅游资源的可达性差异^[46,47]。

（3）基于联邦主体的滑雪场所可达性在空间上呈聚集格局,在2 h之内的38个高可接近性联邦主体在“莫斯科—乌拉尔山脉”附近呈东西走向。各联邦主体区位潜力值差距较大,莫斯科州的区位优势潜力最大,滑雪旅游资源实力最强;乌拉尔山脉处聚集联邦主体加权旅行时间总和最短,是与俄罗斯境内滑雪场所联系最紧密的区域。

4.2 讨论

俄罗斯滑雪场所空间格局表明,西部区域滑雪旅游的影响力正稳固增长,对远东地区的推进探索仍面临挑战。俄罗斯滑雪场所布局的优势在于：莫斯科州、大高加索山脉地区与阿尔泰山脉等具有发达滑雪资源的中心聚集区,以道路交通为媒介引领促进着西部其他地区的后发优势;远东地区具有丰富的积雪资源与山地优势,可建设有特色的高山滑雪度假村,吸引西部年轻游客前来滑雪。但俄罗斯的滑雪旅游产业链条仍需完善^[48],当前可达性格局反映出区域发展不平衡问题：远东地区的滑雪资源可达性差,基础设施建设薄弱,应形成以交通网络为媒介的多区协同冰雪旅游发展格局,加强与西部地区的联通,增加社会经济交流机会,提升俄罗斯整体的滑雪可达性测度;若将滑雪者来源目光转向最具增长潜力的东亚地区,建设太平洋沿岸优良港湾,促进海运交通,可吸引中国、日本、韩国市场的境外滑雪旅客,这对远东地区深入规划研究具有十分重要的意义。

中俄两国滑雪旅游产业合作应寻求更多发展机会。中国正处于冰雪产业发展的战略机遇期,冰雪旅游作为一项新兴度假产品,具有稀缺性、文化主题性、可参与性与观赏性等价值^[30],从“冷资源”转变为“热产业”。在此背景下,以“冰上丝绸之路”建设为契机,在促进北极地区互联互通和经济社会可持续发展的同时,开拓旅游合作新渠道^[49],寻求中俄两国冰雪产业的国际协作,尤其在远东地区的冰雪旅游合作,促进在冰雪文化、滑雪运动等领域多层面交流与相互借鉴。2022年中国作为冬奥会举办方,目前在设施建设上有稳固的硬件基础,需加强体育文化与冰雪文化的宣传^[50,51,52]。国家应适当给予政策倾斜与经济支持,大力传播冰雪体育运动,以提升大众对滑雪的热情,并完善人才培养体系。

俄罗斯滑雪旅游的经验对中国滑雪资源的空间布局有一定的可鉴之处。①中国东北三省与京津冀地区为滑雪资源集聚区,前者具有发展冰雪旅游的环境条件,冰雪文化历史悠久,与俄罗斯西南部大高加索区域相似;后者环境近似于莫斯科周边区位,综合潜力巨大,滑雪运动客源丰富。以东三省为“领头者”,以京津冀为“加速者”,放大区域聚集效应,协同带动中南部地区发展^[28,53]。在人口密度高的城市中心及近郊建立室内滑雪场;城区边缘布局大规模的滑雪场所或度假村,充分发挥区位优势。②升级交通网络布局,将全国旅游滑雪场可达性均衡化,空间分布一体化。参考俄罗斯远东区域的开发对策,在中国南方及西部高原寻求建设高质量雪场的可能性,提高全国冰雪资源的覆盖率,拓展潜在的滑雪旅游者市场;借鉴阿尔泰地区建设雪场的经验,合理利用租金成本低、占地面积广的区域,吸引滑雪相关机构的投资。③开发现代化、高端化、特色化滑雪旅游路线,建设可持续运营的高档旅游度假中心^[54],形成完整的冰雪旅游产业链。参考俄罗斯顶级滑雪圣地,如索契附近的罗莎库塔（Rosa Khutor）滑雪综合体,多姆拜（Dombay）滑雪胜地等,为滑雪者提供高舒适度的度假体验,提升国际知名度。

本文的不足之处在于：①研究对象旅游滑雪场的来源有限。目前仅选择了部分俄罗斯滑雪官网上的滑雪场所作为分析目标,并未考虑小型并在网络上无记录的滑雪场所。在后续研究中可使用爬虫等手段全面获取滑雪旅游资源相关信息。②仅通过数据及相关文献资料对滑雪旅游资源的可达性进行评估。而滑雪场所的空间分布成因是复杂的,未来可采用问卷调查等手段对俄罗斯居民的实际旅游出行情况进行进一步样本的采集与整理。

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K指数、核密度等计量地理学和GIS空间分析方法，对298处国家湿地公园的空间分布特征进行了分析；运用栅格成本加权距离算法，计算国家湿地公园的空间可接近性，并测算县域单元的整体可接近性；利用探索性空间数据分析方法（ESDA）分析了县域可接近性的空间差异。结果表明：中国国家湿地公园的空间分布类型属于凝聚型，省际和经济区的分布差异均较大；国家湿地公园的平均可接近时间为144.07 min，全国60%的区域国家湿地公园可接近时间在2 h以内，30 min以内的可接近性区域占全国总面积的13.29%，可接近时间最长的地点位于青藏高原，高达1283 min；可接近性的空间分布具有明显的交通指向性；县域可接近性的Moran I为正值，国家湿地公园与其邻近地区的可接近性呈显著正相关；可接近性热点分布表现出明显的热点-次热点-次冷点-冷点自东向西分布的格局；国家湿地公园的服务范围整体表现为西部>东部>中部的特征。]]>

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K function, and kernel density estimation, the spatial distribution of 298 China’s national wetland parks was analyzed. Based on the matrix raster data, the spatial accessibility of China’s national wetland parks at countylevel was calculated by using the cost weighted distance method and ArcGIS as platforms. The spatial differences of countylevel accessibility of the national wetland parks were analyzed by the exploratory spatial data analysis (ESDA). Results show that the national wetland parks generally exhibit an aggregated distribution. There is quite difference of spatial distribution of national wetland parks among both interprovinces and intereconomic regions. The average accessibility is about 144.07 min, and the area with the accessibility of national wetland parks within 120 min reaches 60%, while the area with the accessibility within 30 min accounts for 13.29%, and the longest time needs 1283 min for one park located at central Tibetan Plateau. Moreover, the distribution of the accessibility coincides with that of traffic lines. At county level, the estimated value of Moran’s I is positive. National wetland parks and adjacent areas show a strong positive correlation. The distribution of hot spots regarding the accessibility shows an obvious hot spots-sub-hot spots-sub-cold spots-cold spots distribution pattern from east to west. Service range of each national wetland park is more advanced in western regions than that in eastern and central China.]]>

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[J]. 地理学报, 2010,65(10):1287-1298.

DOI:10.11821/xb201010013 URL [本文引用: 3]

针对目前可达性研究技术的局限,设计网络分析与成本栅格加权集成法,并应用该方法生成高铁通车后城市等时圈图。利用日常可达性、潜力值与加权平均时间,比较有无京沪高铁两种情景下京沪地区中心城市可达性空间格局变化,探讨高铁对中心城市可达性的影响,并采用场强模型计算高铁通车前后中心城市腹地范围。结果显示：高铁将扩展等时圈范围,实现城市日常可达性整体大幅优化,形成非均衡的时间收敛空间。高铁站点沿线成为时间收敛的最大受益者,它们的加权平均时间与潜力值变率高。在不同地理尺度下,高铁降低加权平均时间均衡性,对潜力值均衡性影响不一致。高铁扩大北京与上海的腹地,增强其区域辐射力。针对区域可达性变化,可达性变率高的城市可适时调整产业类型,变率低的城市可通过加强快速交通网络与高铁的衔接来提高可达性。

[ Jiang

H B

, Xu

J G

, Qi

. The influence of Beijing-Shanghai high-speed railways on land accessibility of regional center cities
[J]. Acta Geographica Sinica, 2010,65(10):1287-1298.]

DOI:10.11821/xb201010013 URL [本文引用: 3]

Since some limitations existed in the current accessibility method, integrated method of network analysis and cost weighted raster analysis were designed and applied to generate city isochronous rings after the operation of high-speed railways. The valuation of accessibility was conducted with three indicators, i.e. daily accessibility, potential model, and weighted average time. After the valuation, differences between accessibility patterns with scenarios with and without high-speed railways were analyzed, and influences of the high-speed railways on center cities' accessibility were discussed. Changes in hinterlands of the center cities were also calculated with field intensity model. The results indicated that high-speed railways would expand the isochronous rings, and realize significant optimization of urban daily accessibility and form uneven time convergence space. Sites along the high-speed railways became the biggest beneficiaries of time convergence, as the variability of their weighted average time and potential values were high. In different geographical scales, the high-speed railways reduced the equilibrium of weighted average time, and their influences on the equilibrium of potential values are inconsistent. The high-speed railways would expand the hinterlands of Beijing and Shanghai, and strengthen their regional influences. As accessibility changes differed in different regions, the industrial structure should be adjusted in regions with high accessibility variability, while regions with low accessibility variability should improve rapid transit networks, and increase accessibility by strengthening their links with high-speed railways.

[19]

杨蕊萌. 高铁对冰雪旅游可达性及空间组织演变的影响: 以东北三省为例
[D]. 大连: 辽宁师范大学, 2018.

[本文引用: 1]

[ Yang

R M

. Impact of High-Speed Rail on Ice-Snow Travel Accessibility and Spatial Organization Evolution: A Case Study of Three Northeast Provinces
[D]. Dalian: Liaoning Normal University, 2018.]

[本文引用: 1]

[20]

张莉, 陆玉麒. 基于陆路交通网的区域可达性评价: 以长江三角洲为例
[J]. 地理学报, 2006,61(12):1235-1246.

DOI:10.11821/xb200612001 URL [本文引用: 1]

对于给定的区域而言,区内任意一点可达性的评价应当是区内可达性和区外可达性的综合评价。利用MapX控件和Delphi编程工具,开发了基于时间最短的区域可达性计算与分析信息系统,生成了可达性的分值扩散图。基于长江三角洲的陆路交通网,从时间距离的角度对长江三角洲内16个地级市目前和未来的区内可达性和区外可达性进行了评价。结果表明,长江三角洲区域可达性呈现出以上海为中心的扇状辐射,可达性最好的是上海和嘉兴,可达性最差的是台州和南通。随着苏通大桥、杭州湾跨海大桥和舟山大陆连岛工程的建成,长江三角洲地区内所有城市的区内可达性都有了提高,尤其是绍兴、宁波和泰州,区内可达性减少了1h,其余城市区内可达性平均减少了25 min。随着南通洋口港的建成,长江三角洲境内江苏城市以海港为节点的区外可达性都有不同程度的提高,到达海港的平均时间减少了近1h。

[ Zhang

, Lu

Y Q

. Assessment on regional accessibility based on land transportation network: A case study of the Yangtze River Delta
[J]. Acta Geographica Sinica, 2006,61(12):1235-1246.]

DOI:10.11821/xb200612001 URL [本文引用: 1]

For a given region, internal accessibility and external accessibility should be considered to assess accessibility of each point in the region. Using MapX component and Delphi programming tool, regional accessibility calculation and analysis information system based on minimal pass-time is developed, with which mark diffusing figure could be generated. From the view of time-distance, the present and approaching regional internal accessibility and regional external accessibility of 16 major cities in the Yangtze River Delta are analyzed according to land traffic network. The result shows that, the regional accessibility of the Yangtze River Delta radiates a fan-shaped pattern with Shanghai as the core. The top two cities are Shanghai and Jiaxing. The bottom two cities are Taizhou and Nantong. With the completion of Sutong Bridge, Hangzhouwan Bridge and Zhoushan Bridge, the regional internal accessibility of all cities in the Yangtze River Delta will be improved. Especially for Shaoxing, Ningbo and Taizhou, the regional internal accessibility will be one hour decrease. At the same time, the regional internal accessibility of other cities will be about 25 minutes decrease averagely. As the accomplishment of the Yangkou seaport in Nantong, regional external accessibility with the node of seaport of cities in Jiangsu province will be increased with an average decrease in accessibility by about one hour.

[21]

金凤君, 王娇娥. 20世纪中国铁路网扩展及其空间通达性
[J]. 地理学报, 2004,59(2):293-302.

DOI:10.11821/xb200402016 URL [本文引用: 1]

作者设计了运输距离Di和通达性系数等度量交通网络通达性的指标,并以“最短路模型”为基础,分析了100年来中国铁路交通网络的发展以及由此引起的通达性空间格局的变化。结果显示,中国铁路网络结构的演化经历了起步、筑网、延伸、优化4个阶段,但空间扩展的速度相对缓慢。路网扩展和原有路网优化是通达性提高的主要方式；100年铁路建设导致“空间收敛”效果显著。通达性空间格局呈现同心圈层结构,由华北区向四周辐射；且通达性高于全国平均水平的范围也由华北向华东区、中南区扩展,交通中心由天津向郑州逐渐转移。铁路的建设推动了社会经济空间结构的演化,运输走廊的现代化将推动空间经济轴线进一步强化。

[ Jin

F J

, Wang

J E

. Railway network expansion and spatial accessibility analysis in China: 1906-2000
[J]. Acta Geographica Sinica, 2004,59(2):293-302.]

DOI:10.11821/xb200402016 URL [本文引用: 1]

In this paper, the indexes and models are used to measure the accessibility of transport network, such as total transport distance Di and accessibility coefficient. On the basis of "The Shortest Route Model", the evolution of railway network, changes of the spatial structure in accessibility, the relationship between railway network distribution and spatial economic growth in the past several hundred years in China are analyzed. The results show that the evolution of railway network in China experienced 4 stages, i.e., initial stage, constructing stage, extending stage and optimizing stage, but the speed of spatial expanding is relatively slow. One hundred years' construction of railway leads to "time-space convergence". The spatial structure of accessibility displays "different circles with one core", and radiates from North China to the surroundings. The area, higher than the national average level in accessibility, expands from North China to East China and Central China, and the center of accessibility moved from Tianjin to Zhengzhou gradually.

[22]

吴春涛, 李隆杰, 何小禾, 等. 长江经济带旅游景区空间格局及演变
[J]. 资源科学, 2018,40(6):1196-1208.

DOI:10.18402/resci.2018.06.10 URL [本文引用: 1]

长江经济带的联动发展及生态廊道建设使旅游景区的空间分布出现剧烈变化,研究旅游景区的空间变化对旅游基础设施的合理布局、制定长江黄金旅游带规划以及实现旅游经济腾飞具有重要作用。本文选取2012年和2016年长江经济带九省二市的旅游景区空间点位数据,综合运用标准差椭圆、平均最近邻分析以及核密度等方法分析了长江经济带旅游景区的空间演变特征。结果表明：长江经济带旅游景区总体分布格局基本沿长江水系发生聚集,聚集程度随时间的推移不断加深;相关政策促进、旅游业市场需求持续增加、交通可达性优化等多重因素的综合作用使区域景区聚集加速;城市休闲型景区以及主题公园兴建为城市景区聚集提供新动力。

[ Wu

C T

, Li

L J

, He

X H

, et al. Spatial analysis of scenic spots in the Yangtze River Economic Belt
[J]. Resources Science, 2018,40(6):1196-1208.]

DOI:10.18402/resci.2018.06.10 URL [本文引用: 1]

The linkage development of different provinces in the Yangtze River Economic Belt and the construction of ecological corridor policy brings about dramatic changes to the spatial distribution of scenic spots in the whole Yangtze River Economic Belt. Research on the spatial changes of tourism scenic spots in every province and the whole region, plays an important role in distributing tourism infrastructure. This is also important to the planning of the Yangtze River Golden Tourism Zone and rapid development of the tourism economy. This article uses the spatial location of scenic spots in eleven provinces in the Yangtze River Economic Belt to investigate the spatial evolution characteristics of scenic spots. All data are obtained from official websites maintained by national and provincial tourism administrations. Integration of the standard deviation ellipse, average nearest neighbor analysis and kernel density method are used to analyze evolution tendency. We found that the distribution pattern of tourist scenic spots in the Yangtze River Economic Belt is mostly clustered with the Yangtze River river system. The degree of clustering deepens as time goes by across the whole region. Characteristics of phased and integrated development of regional tourism development in the Yangtze River Economic Belt, rapid development of tributaries, tourism promotion policy, better accessibility of transport and urban construction are the main reasons explaining the aggolomeration of scenic spots. The construction of urban recreational scenic spots and theme parks provides new impetus for the clustering of urban scenic spots.

[23]

Fredman

, Heberlein

T A

. Changes in skiing and snowmobiling in Swedish mountains
[J]. Annals of Tourism Research, 2003,30(2):485-488.

DOI:10.1016/S0160-7383(02)00110-X URL [本文引用: 1]

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Pintar

, Mali

, Kraigher

. The impact of ski slopes management on Krvavec ski resort (Slovenia) on hydrological functions of soils
[J]. Biologia, 2009,64(3):639-642.

[本文引用: 1]

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Steiger

. The impact of climate change on ski season length and snowmaking requirements in Tyrol, Austria
[J]. Climate Research, 2010,43(3):251-262.

[本文引用: 1]

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Tuppen

. The restructuring of winter sports resorts in the French Alps: Problems, processes and policies
[J]. International Journal of Tourism Research, 2000,2(5):327-344.

DOI:10.1002/(ISSN)1522-1970 URL [本文引用: 1]

[27]

Konu

, Laukkanen

, Komppula

. Using ski destination choice criteria to segment Finnish ski resort customers
[J]. Tourism Management, 2011,32(5):1096-1105.

DOI:10.1016/j.tourman.2010.09.010 URL [本文引用: 1]

The purpose of the paper is to segment Finnish ski resort visitors according to ski destination choice attributes using data-driven segmentation. In addition, segments are compared in order to ascertain possible differences in personal (gender and age) and situation-specific (type of visitor and traveling companion) characteristics between customer segments. The data were collected from visitors to five different ski resorts in Lapland Finland during the years 2006 and 2007 by self-administered questionnaire. Altogether 1827 responses were collected of which 1529 were acceptable for use in this study. Six different customer segments were identified using the factor-cluster method: passive tourists, cross-country skiers, want-it-all, all-but-downhill skiing, sports seekers, and relaxation seekers. At the end of the paper conclusions are drawn and managerial implications discussed. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd.

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Bausch

, Unseld

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[本文引用: 2]

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吴伟伟, 张春艳, 郝生宾. 冰雪旅游资源的价值构成与体系构建研究
[J]. 技术经济与管理研究, 2010, (4):152-156.

URL [本文引用: 1]

随着经济的发展,冰雪旅游成为旅游的热点,并受到越来越多的重视,而正确认识冰雪旅游资源价值是科学开发冰雪旅游资源、促进冰雪旅游产业发展的前提.本文针对冰雪旅游资源价值进行研究,首先分析了冰雪旅游资源的价值来源,认为冰雪旅游资源价值来源于冰雪旅游资源本身、旅游资源开发者和冰雪旅游者;然后进行了调查研究并应用因子分析研究了冰雪旅游资源价值的构成要素,认为冰雪旅游资源价值主要包括经济要素、文化要素和生态要素.在此基础上,分析了冰雪旅游资源的经济价值、生态价值和文化价值,指出冰雪旅游资源价值包括现实价值和潜在价值,其中现实价值主要是经济价值,潜在价值包括生态价值和文化价值,最后据此构建了冰雪旅游资源价值体系.

[ Wu

W W

, Zhang

C Y

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S B

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[J]. Journal of Technical Economics & Management, 2010, (4):152-156.]

[本文引用: 1]

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王玲. 国内外冰雪旅游开发与研究述评
[J]. 生态经济, 2010, (3):66-69.

URL [本文引用: 2]

冰雪、森林与海洋是未来旅游业发展的三大资源.当前,世界范围内的冰雪旅游已经步入一个高速发展阶段,伴随着这一潮流,中国的冰雪旅游也开展得如火如荼.文章对国内外冰雪旅游开发现状与特点进行了比较研究,并就国内外冰雪旅游研究文献做出统计分析,在此基础上总结出我国冰雪旅游研究存在的主要问题和国外冰雪旅游开发的成功经验.

[ Wang

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[J]. Ecological Economy, 2010, (3):66-69.]

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张贵海. 基于“一带一路”战略下中俄冰雪产业国际合作研究
[J]. 商业经济, 2017, (7):1-4.

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[本文引用: 1]

[32]

方琰, Scott

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[J]. 资源科学, 2020,42(6):1210-1222.

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[ Fang

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[J]. Resources Science, 2020,42(6):1210-1222.]

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李一曼, 修春亮, 孙平军. 基于加权平均旅行时间的浙江省交通可达性时空格局研究
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[ Li

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C L

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[34]

潘竟虎, 李俊峰. 中国A级旅游景点空间分布特征与可达性
[J]. 自然资源学报, 2014,29(1):55-66.

DOI:10.11849/zrzyxb.2014.01.006 URL [本文引用: 1]

K指数、热点聚类等方法分析中国2 424 个A级旅游景点的空间分布特征；运用栅格成本加权距离算法，计算中国A级旅游景点的空间可达性，并测算县域单元的整体可达性；利用空间关联方法分析了县域可达性的空间差异。结果表明：中国A级景点的空间分布总体上呈现出聚集分布的特点，所有景点的平均可达时间为125.88 min，60%的景点可达时间在90 min 以内；可达性在全国的分布差异十分明显，可达性空间分布具有明显的交通指向性。景点的县域可达性呈强集聚格局，可达性热点区域的分布呈现明显的热点—次热点—次冷点—冷点自东向西带状分布的格局。]]>

[ Pan

J H

, Li

J F

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[J]. Journal of Natural Resources, 2014,29(1):55-66.]

DOI:10.11849/zrzyxb.2014.01.006 URL [本文引用: 1]

K function, hot spot clustering, the spatial structure of tourist attractions were investigated, with their characteristics and distribution for different strategies being discussed. Based on matrix raster data covering the whole space, this paper calculates spatial accessibility of all counties in China using cost weighted distance method and ArcGIS as platforms. Then we discuss spatial differences of county accessibility of scenic spots by using ESDA (Exploratory Spatial Data Analysis). The results show that general scenic spots exhibit an aggregated distribution. Considering the accessibility, we find that the human scenic spots are more centralized. The average accessibility is about 125.88 minutes, and the area where the accessibility of scenic spots is within 90 minutes reaches 60%, while the area where the accessibility is within 30 minutes accounts for 26.65% and the longest time needs 1260 minutes which is located at central Tibetan Plateau. Distribution of the accessibility has pointed to traffic line. At county level, the estimated values of Moran's I is positive numbers using analysis of spatial association. All the test results indicate that tourist attractions and adjacent areas show strong positive correlation. Distribution of hot spots regarding the accessibility shows an obvious hot spots－sub-hotspots－sub-cold spots－cold spots zonal distribution pattern from east to west. Cold spots are distributed in the border zone of Tibet, Xinjiang and Qinghai. On the basis of the above results, we identify five factors which impact the spatial structure and accessibility of scenic spots: natural environment, economic development, traffic condition, population and rating system. Finally, some recommendations are given for optimization of the spatial structure of scenic spots, involving quickening the development of edge district's tourism, coordinating the development of the tourism industry for each region, and enhancing basic infrastructure of transportation especially that of the provincial border-regions.]]>

[35]

黄季夏, 张天媛, 王利, 等. 俄罗斯油气资源空间分布格局及可达性评估
[J]. 地理学报, 2020,75(9):2009-2024.

[本文引用: 1]

[ Huang

J X

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T Y

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[本文引用: 1]

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Министерство Регионального Развития Российской Федерации Свод Правил. С34. 13330. 2012 Автомобильные Дорогиснип 2. 05. 02-85*
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[37]

王振波, 徐建刚, 朱传耿, 等. 中国县域可达性区域划分及其与人口分布的关系
[J]. 地理学报, 2010,65(4):416-426.

DOI:10.11821/xb201004004 URL [本文引用: 1]

可达性空间划分是交通地理学研究的重要领域。分析其与人口布局的关系,对当下中国的发展具有重要的理论与实践意义。借助GIS 软件平台,运用栅格成本加权距离算法,计算全国县 (市、区) 域单元的空间可达性并进行区域划分,进而探讨中国大区域交通可达性与人口分布的关系,揭示不同交通条件和不同区域类型中人口迁移与人口流动内在机制,为区域规划、交通规划和中国人口配置提供科学依据。研究表明,①栅格成本加权距离算法可以实现空间可达性概念从定性描述转向定量计算的精确转换;②中国县域可达性以低值为主,具有圈层状和"反自然梯度"空间结构,"黑河—腾冲"线为明显分界线;③中国大陆分为3大区:可达性高值区、可达性中值区、可达性低值区。可达性中值区又可分为东南诸省亚区、陕甘宁晋亚区、吉林亚区;可达性低值区分为云川渝亚区、蒙黑亚区、新疆亚区、青藏亚区;④国家区域范围内县域可达性与人口密度具有明显的相关性,2.5小时圈是目前中国可达性与人口集聚产生作用的最远距离;中国县域可达性越高的区域,可达性对人口集聚产生作用圈就越大,而可达性值与人口数量的相关性越小,说明交通条件对落后地区人口集聚所起到的作用远远大于发达地区。

[ Wang

Z B

, Xu

J G

, Zhu

C G

, et al. The county accessibility divisions in China and its correlation with population distribution
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DOI:10.11821/xb201004004 URL [本文引用: 1]

Based on matrix raster data covering the whole space,this paper calculates spatial accessibility of all counties (city,urban district) in China using cost weighted distance method and ArcGIS 9.2 as platforms.Then we discuss the relation of traffic accessibility and population aggregation under the background of China\'s rapid urbanization.This is not only a practical test of the western population theory in China,but also a discovery of the phenomenon of transportation guiding population aggregation in China.The result shows that:(1) The cost weighted distance method can realize accurate conversion of spatial accessibility from qualitative description to quantitative calculation.(2) County accessibility in China has mainly low values and a distribution structure of circle layer and reverse-to-natural gradient,where "Heihe-Tengchong" line is the demarcation line.(3) According to accessibility,Chinese mainland can be divided into 3 parts:High Value Region (HVR),Intermediate Value Region (IVR) and Low Value Region (LVR).The HVR is in eastern coastal area of China;IVR is situated on the periphery of HVR,which can be further divided into Southeast Provinces Subregion (SEPSR),Shaanxi-Gansu-Ningxia-Shanxi Subregion (SGNSSR) and Jilin Subregion (JLSR);LVR can be divided into Yunnan-Sichuan-Chongqing Subregion (YSCSR),Inner Mongolia-Heilongjiang Subregion (IMHSR),Xinjiang Subregion (XJSR) and Qinghai-Tibet Subregion (QTSR).(4) County accessibility is closely related with population density in China.The 2.5-hour circle is the limited distance for the effects of Chinese accessibility on population aggregation.As the accessibility of a region goes higher,the circle of population aggregation affected by accessibility becomes bigger.As the accessibility of a region goes higher,the circle of population aggregation affected by accessibility becomes bigger.Meanwhile,the correlation between accessibility and population becomes smaller.The result shows that the effect of transportation conditions on population aggregation in less developed areas is far larger than that in developed areas.It also indicates that the HVR,SGNSSR,JLSR,YSCSR,and XJSR should develop their transportation systems with equalization.The SEPSR and QTSR should focus on the inner-county transportation,and IMHSR should fully implement regional transportation system construction.

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空间可达性是评价医疗设施布局合理与否的重要指标，传统的医疗设施空间可达性评价，或者从医疗服务供需状况着手，或者从供需双方之间距离因素着手，均无法全面评价居民实际所能获取的医疗资源。本文采用基于潜能模型的评价方法对江苏省如东县医疗设施空间可达性进行分析研究，该方法综合考虑了医疗设施服务能力、居民点人口数量、医疗设施与居民点之间的出行阻抗。研究表明，通过选取合适的出行摩擦系数，该方法能够较为全面准确地测度较小研究单元的医疗设施空间可达性，辅以GIS技术，可以很直观地揭示研究区域内医疗设施空间可达性差异，结合公共卫生管理部门制定的医疗资源配置标准，还可较为准确判定缺医地区，为政府相关部门规划决策提供依据。

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