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国外地理学对公共卫生问题的研究与启示

本站小编 Free考研考试/2021-12-29

徐云帆,, 黄贤金,南京大学地理与海洋科学学院,南京 210023

Progress and prospects of geography in public health: A review of literature abroad

XU Yunfan,, HUANG Xianjin,School of Geography and Ocean Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China

通讯作者: 黄贤金(1968-),男,江苏扬中人,教授,博士生导师,主要研究方向为资源地理与土地利用。E-mail: hxj369@nju.edu.cn

收稿日期:2020-11-3接受日期:2021-04-19
基金资助:国家社会科学基金重大项目(17ZDA061)


Received:2020-11-3Accepted:2021-04-19
作者简介 About authors
徐云帆(1997-),女,江苏盐城人,硕士,主要研究方向为人居环境与可持续发展。E-mail: yunfani42@163.com




摘要
在工业化、城镇化、信息化持续发展,全球变化和全球事件轮番冲击的背景下,公共卫生研究不断深化,已发展为全球性的跨学科议程及研究热点。回顾相关文献发现,国内外地理学对公共卫生问题的研究在数量上均经历了缓慢上升、加速上升和当前的快速上升阶段,但切入角度和关注议题存在差异。本文通过梳理国外地理学对公共卫生问题的研究,对这一领域概念、理论、方法的发展及热点进行归纳总结和综合评述,探讨健康老龄化、健康不平等、融合健康考量的城市规划等议题下现有研究的主要争议、前景及其对国内研究的启示,尤其指出气候变化和传染病大流行等外部压力下暴露出的地理学研究契机,以期拓展视野、聚焦问题,为国内地理****参与公共卫生研究提供参考。
关键词: 公共卫生;地理学;健康地理学;演化转向

Abstract
World Health Organization defines health as ‘a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity’. Therefore, public health, the art and science of promoting health, is an interdisciplinary field which benefits from communication of different research perspectives. Of these perspectives, geography has a unique advantage in that space and health are intrinsically linked. The geographical context of places and the connectedness between places together play a major role in shaping public health. These features allow geography to theorize the associations between different variables and health from a unique angle of view and tackle public health challenges around the world. Many core geographical research themes in recent years, including inequalities, urbanization, and globalization, are directly related to public health. However, with the definition of health and public management constantly evolving, public health and geography research starting stressing emphasis on socio-economic factors, and crises like climate change and COVID-19 pandemic bringing external pressure, the geographical dimension of public health research has become much more complex and experienced many changes in connotation, theory, content and methodology. This paper starts with a brief review which shows relevant literatures at home and abroad have both experienced a slow rise, an accelerated rise, and the current rapid rise, but are divided in perspectives and topics concerned. It is worth noting that numbers of both reached a maximum in 2020. Then the paper is organized in a set of theories, methods and topics which have dominated much of the recent literature abroad: neighborhood effect, therapeutic landscapes, post-humanist thoughts, evolving quantitative and qualitative methods, healthy aging, health inequalities, and urban planning measures aimed at promoting residents’ health. In particular, it points out current opportunities in which global crises such as climate change and COVID-19 pandemic opened up for geographical research. The purpose of this paper is twofold: first, to examine recent research in the geographical dimension of public health research abroad; second, to introduce relevant theories, methods, and topics which might prove valuable to support future quests and build in-depth research on domestic public health problems.
Keywords:public health;geography;health geography;evolutionary turn


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本文引用格式
徐云帆, 黄贤金. 国外地理学对公共卫生问题的研究与启示[J]. 地理研究, 2021, 40(9): 2638-2656 doi:10.11821/dlyj020201058
XU Yunfan, HUANG Xianjin. Progress and prospects of geography in public health: A review of literature abroad[J]. Geographical Research, 2021, 40(9): 2638-2656 doi:10.11821/dlyj020201058


1 引言

2020年3月11日,世界卫生组织宣布由新型冠状病毒(SARS-CoV-2)引起的新型冠状病毒肺炎(Corona Virus Disease 2019,COVID-19)(以下简称新冠肺炎)疫情全球大流行。公共卫生作为“一门通过有组织的社区努力来预防疾病、延长寿命、促进身体健康的科学和艺术”[1],其重要性再次被重申。地理学研究地理要素的时空分异与演变,帮助解释遗传、职业、生活方式如何与自然、社会、建成环境相互作用,是保障和促进公众健康的前提。近年来许多地理学的核心议题,如尺度、全球化、城市化、不平等与极化更是与公共卫生直接相关[2]。相较于其他领域,公众健康涉及的人地关系更加敏感复杂,国内外均有大量研究从地理学视角出发对公共卫生问题进行了审视,但其切入角度和关注议题存在差异。鉴于此,本文首先通过文献计量分析简要回顾近年来国内外研究演化,由二者差异引出对国外相关研究的梳理。通过总结国外地理学对公共卫生问题的讨论,归纳其理论、方法、议题的热点与发展,以期拓展视野、聚焦问题,为国内相关研究的深化提供参考与借鉴。

以中国知网(CNKI)北大核心、Web of Science(WoS)核心合集数据库分别为中、英文文献数据来源,设置检索时间1992—2020年,借助CiteSpace科学计量软件进行分析[3]。在WoS中进行高级检索,设置主题包含“public health”且包含“spatial”“spatiotemporal”“geospatial”“geograph*”至少之一,文献类型限制为“article”和“review”,人工排除临床医学等无关研究类别、第一作者和第一单位均为国内属性的文献,经去重和整理后最终提取9915篇文献记录。在CNKI中进行专业检索,设置主题包含“地理”“GIS”“空间”“时空”至少之一,且主题同时包含“公共卫生”“健康”“疾病”“慢性病”“流行病”“传染病”“传染性疾病”“感染”“疾控”“预防”“防治”“防控”“医疗”“卫生”“保健”至少之一,人工排除会议介绍、卷首语、新闻通知、成果介绍、地图只作为呈现工具而未进行空间分析、研究对象非人等无关文献,经去重和整理后最终提取2712篇文献记录。图1给出了各年度发文数量的变化情况,国内外地理学对公共卫生问题的参与均经历了缓慢增长-加速增长-快速增长三个阶段,其中英文文献的增长总体较为稳定,中文文献波动增长。值得注意的是2020年中文文献数量的年增长率超过85%,为1997年来的最高值;英文文献数量的年增长率超过25%,为2010年来的最高值。

使用CiteSpace 5.7.R4对1992—2020年的中英文文献进行切片年限为1的关键词共现分析,分别提取中英文文献中出现频次最高的20个关键词,将其在1992—2002年、2003—2012年、2013—2020年三个时序阶段的出现频次制成表1。地理信息系统、流行病学和健康风险在中英文文献关键词中均排在前列。对于中文文献,1992—2002年期间,其研究主要集中在克山病等地方病、血吸虫病等自然疫源性或人畜共患病的空间分布规律、生态学特性和环境病因上。2003—2012年期间,地理信息系统得到推广,健康风险评价理论被国内学界普遍接受,围绕水污染和重金属的健康风险评价始终是热点;同一时期,随着基本公共服务均等化被明确为建设社会主义和谐社会的目标和任务,基于公平性的卫生资源配置研究开始受到关注,基尼系数、泰尔指数等方法被广泛采用。2013—2020年期间,伴随国内生态社会环境的变化、健康城市等倡议的提出、高致病性禽流感等突发公共卫生事件的出现,国内地理学对公共卫生的参与进一步深化,越来越多的社会、经济、文化要素被纳入研究考量,城乡健康、人口流动、老龄化等主题均积累了一些有益的探索。对于英文文献,相较而言其起步更早,更关注慢性病、儿童老人等特殊群体的健康权益、社会人文因素对健康的影响等,强调探索多元尤其是新兴变量与健康过程、健康结果的关联;且近年来研究重点已从应对疾病拓展为支持性环境和健康身份的构建,孕育了大量新的概念转变和理论视角。目前,面对传染病大流行和气候变化等全球威胁,公共卫生的跨学科性愈加明显,国外地理学在相关研究中的切入和聚焦可以为解决本土公共卫生问题提供参考和启发。下文将从理论、方法、研究议题三方面入手,梳理国外地理学在公共卫生问题中的积极探索。

图1

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图11992—2020年中英文发文数量统计

Fig. 1Publication records related to geography in public health, published from 1992 to 2020



Tab. 1
表1
表1前20位高频关键词在三个时序阶段的词频统计
Tab. 1Word frequency of top 20 keywords in three time phases
中文词频(次)英文词频(次)
1992—2002年2003—2012年2013—2020年1992—2002年2003—2012年2013—2020年
地理信息系统4119133public health573821142
空间分布2148141epidemiology65256677
新冠肺炎00102health31209618
公平性01476prevalence41199522
健康风险评价02268united states51178514
空间自相关0863risk43203490
卫生资源配置11155mortality47206447
基尼系数1852disease34152426
流行病学42032GIS29213340
时空分布0746infection24149402
影响因素1437impact6106404
泰尔指数0137children36131306
水环境32012transmission21123328
重金属0528risk factor21111316
中国0527population29119268
健康城市1229surveillance14103270
生态环境51215association766300
时空聚集性0427physical activity795262
公共卫生11414outbreak885253
空间流行病学01314care1266260

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2 主要理论与方法

2.1 理论

在健康仅由疾病率或死亡率衡量时,地理学在地图上标识并研究这些指标的空间分布[4]。当健康的涵义从没有疾病发展为身体、心理和社会功能三方面的完满状态,公共卫生的聚焦也从各项指标的叠加拓展为人群身体健康、心理健康和社会的全面和谐。20世纪70年代,新公共卫生运动开始背离疾病生态学传统,将疾病视为生物、社会和心理因素复杂作用的结果。对“风险”的阐述是这场运动的核心,公共卫生将尚未出现的疾病即“风险”与行为、环境相联系,从而合法化意识形态和社会实践[5]。同一时期在社会-文化转型的影响下,公共卫生和地理学同时开始强调社会、文化、政治和经济环境对健康所起的作用。在充分吸纳社会学和文化学观点的基础上,地理学引入了福祉、身份、地方等概念并完成了由医学地理学至健康地理学的裂解[6]。20世纪90年代,人口健康视角兴起,主张观察并分析某个人口的健康水平及决定因素,并寻找有效的干预方法。它的特殊之处在于将维护个体健康视为促进公众健康一个必要但不充分的条件,强调关注社会环境以及它和个体层面变量的相互作用,致力于提升环境整体的健康支持能力[7]。这种思路下泛价值的健康观实际上是公共卫生和地理学视角变化带来的概念延续。一方面,它重申了地方作为一种极富生命力的互动结构在公共卫生研究中的意义;另一方面,它强调了健康的涵义已经从“没有疾病”的缺席状态转移,人们需要对健康建立起更为积极和全面的看法,以指导更为知情和赋权的公共卫生策略。在此背景下,该领域的理论视角也从经验主义和实证主义延伸出去,实现了与结构主义、后结构主义、人本主义、马克思主义、现象学、存在主义、女权主义以及后殖民主义等各种社会理论的碰撞。其中三方面的理论创新受到了较多的关注。

2.1.1 对邻里效应的关注 对邻里效应的关注是地理学和公共卫生研究社会文化转向的主要表现形式之一。新公共卫生对邻里及社区身份的关注和地理研究中“地方”概念的强化,都促使研究者将目光投向社区环境对健康产生的影响;同一时期多层次模型的推广也从方法论上极大地刺激了对情境和邻里效应的思考。

对邻里社会特征如何影响健康的研究可以追溯至19世纪末涂尔干针对自杀情况的分析[8,9]。除了对社会经济因素的忽视,方法论上的障碍也在很长一段时间内阻碍了类似研究的发展。传统的生态学方法比较不同区域的疾病率或死亡率,并将差异与区域特征相关联,最为常见是死亡率和贫困指数的关联研究。这种方法模糊处理了区域和区域内的人,使研究者无法确定区域之间健康结果的差异究竟是由何者导致的,由此引发的生态谬误和还原谬误极大地限制了相关研究的稳健性和科学性[10]。这种情况一直到20世纪90年代多层次模型在公共卫生学科内的推广才得以改善。

“方法”之所以在邻里效应研究中占据了如此重要的位置,原因在于“好的方法”可以在一定程度上解决关于邻里效应真实性的争论。研究者在理论层面对邻里效应的作用机制提出了许多种可能的解释:如Small等认为邻里效应的作用方式可以分为主要影响儿童的社会化机制和主要影响成年人的工具机制[11];Dietz将邻里效应分解为内生偏好效应、同侪效应和组成效应[12]。但反对者认为邻里效应之所以存在,仅仅是因为某些个体层面的变量被忽视了[13],因此围绕邻里效应的争论焦点实际上并非是理论逻辑而是方法逻辑上的[14]。多层次模型分离了社会环境变量和个体层面变量的影响,巧妙地绕过质疑,迅速成为邻里效应定量研究的主要工具。可以说,在健康的定量化研究领域,地理学最大的贡献莫过于将个体与地方的影响同时纳入了研究[15]

2.1.2 对康复景观的关注 人口健康视角的兴起使人们意识到有必要对创造和维持健康的环境进行投资,由此利用文化地理学观点探索环境、个体和社会因素的康复景观应运而生。

Gesler于20世纪90年代初首先提出了康复景观的概念,他将其描述为“帮助人们理解在某些地方或场所下特定疗愈过程的地理隐喻”[16,17]。最初Gesler将康复景观理论用于检验传说中具有治疗功效的希腊Asclepeion圣殿遗址,但地理****迅速将其推广到更为多元和日常的场所,景观的功能也从疾病治疗拓展至所有促进健康和福祉的可能领域。康复景观或具有自然环境、建成环境、地方感、象征性景观、特定活动等内在涵义,或具有信仰、哲学、社会关系、地域性等外在背景,但其功能始终建立在人们积极的心理依恋上[18]

这一领域积累的实证研究大致分为三个类别:① 特殊的疗愈场所。这类研究关注历史遗迹、国家公园等场所如何从整体上解决包括身体、心理和社会在内的健康问题[17,19]。② 日常的疗愈场所。这类研究强调人们在平凡生活中创造健康,致力于发掘社区花园、家等日常场所的健康功能[20,21]。③ 医疗卫生服务场所。这类研究聚焦医院、疗养院等,强调社会环境和象征性景观在这些场所的重要性,主张为患者赋权[22]。康复景观是文化的、去医学化的,因此其研究内容在世界范围内呈现出高度多元性。它可以是新西兰一座叫“星际飞船”的儿童医院创造出的主题公园式的室内空间[23];可以是英格兰北部老年人在家庭和社区花园里进行的园艺工作[24];可以是让热爱泡澡的日本人享受身心舒缓的温泉洗浴[25];也可以是冈比亚的土著信仰和当地环境之间的文化共生关系[26]

随着实证研究的积累,也有研究者对其理论进展的缺乏、对景观影响异质性讨论的不足给予了关注。但总体而言,康复景观理论通过景观这一地理学核心概念的引入,串联起构成特定地方的丰富要素,为复杂环境下的公众健康提供了强有力的分析框架。

2.1.3 非表征等后人类主义理论的引入 20世纪后半叶,公共卫生和地理学经历了文化转向,人本主义思想帮助地理学将地方概念牢牢植入了健康研究。然而进入21世纪以来,一方面,人们生活的世界快速重构,和公众健康产生互动的行动者持续增加,动摇着从前人本主义赋予人、地、健康系统的稳定性。另一方面,伴随着令人眼花缭乱的科技革新、政治辩论和社会思考,健康的定义本身也愈发复杂。为了不迷失在各范式为健康贴上的标签注脚中,地理****选择回到问题的根本,思考健康是如何发生的[27]。在这样的背景下,行动者网络、精神分析、超越人类的地理学、非表征等后人类主义理论逐渐渗透蔓延,在对身体与健康的分析中占据了一席之地。这其中,非表征理论较为典型,积累了较多的探索。

“我们无法表达我们所看到的,因为我们看到的远不止我们所能表达”[28]。表征是人类表达知识的主要形式,人们通过符号化抽象,使知识表达明确、正式、规范且易于编码和传递[29]。这种方法的局限性在于世界远不止可以抽象和概念化的部分,而表征“像吸血鬼一样为了‘秩序、机制、结构、过程’榨干了事件”[30]。忧心于学界对表征和表征理论的过度依赖,20世纪90年代后期,Thrift提出了聚焦于实践的非表征理论,作为地理知识生产的一种替代方法[31]。非表征理论避开主体-客体的二元论,强调身体和非人行动者相互关联、协同进化,主张给予它们同等权重并关注其不断变化的互动。人不再是超然物外的观察者,而是在持续的身体参与和展演中挖掘非预期的、不断被转化的社会文化意义[32]。实际上早在20世纪70年代,身体转向就已作为文化转向的一部分,由女性主义地理学和文化地理学推动逐渐进入主流话语[33]。社会关系和身体实践与它们发生的空间和地方互相建构,这些社会关系和身体实践也正是新公共卫生的干预对象。非表征理论主张通过观察和参与这种实践,取代以往减法式的地理知识生产方式[34]。它反对表征理论的定式和框架,而非表征本身;它并不呼吁打破表征,而是呼吁卸下表征的先验主义面纱,将表征理解为可作用的实践构成要素[35]

以非表征为代表,后人类主义总体上并非要取代人本主义,而是主张以超越人类的思维方式重新审视人本主义的概念、理论和批判手段。这种转变与20世纪后半叶社会文化转型的显著区别在于,它不止要求改变认识论,即重新认识地方为社会和文化共同构造的整体;更要求改变本体论理解,即强调重新认识人类的切身体验[27]。以非表征等后人类主义理论参与讨论的优势在于,面对各个学科和范式给健康贴上的杂乱注脚,它可以帮助地理学从本体论出发探索人地关系的重塑,为公共卫生策略提供综合性的建议。显然,和非表征理论表现出的松散类似,后人类主义并不是一串连贯严格的理论框架,而是在学科的自然演化中不断启发着新的问题。

2.2 方法

日益多元化的方法与日益多元化的理论相伴而生。在社会文化因素被广泛纳入健康考量前,受疾病生态学传统影响,公共卫生侧重于定量研究。除了采纳经典的流行病学方法,地理学也通过地理信息系统、空间分析方法、多层次模型等手段的引入为公共卫生方法学作出了重要贡献。地理信息系统被广泛用于空间健康数据的收集、存储、组织和分析,且随着建模技术的发展和基于位置的数据源逐渐丰富,研究者可以实时监测人们的活动情况,为健康关联提供更有力的证据。从基础的地理分区到类内相关分析、空间扫描统计、多层次模型的同时使用[36],聚类、插值、加权回归、结构方程模型等空间分析方法在健康领域越来越广泛的应用也使深入揭示健康问题的时空分布成为可能。多层次模型延续了广义线性模型的应用传统,通过区别不同层面、不同组别变量对被解释变量的影响,识别并量化了地方与健康结果的关联。自20世纪90年代以来,多层次线性模型、多层次Logistic回归模型和多变量多层次Logistic回归模型都在健康研究中受到了广泛应用[37]。定量方法使讨论、比较健康过程和结果成为可能,但它们也面临着共同的问题,即方法背后的动机。以多层次模型为例,层次的划分使研究者获得了特定分解健康效应的能力,但层次划分其本身需要研究者赋予涵义,无论是社会学意义上的分区,还是生态学意义上的系统,亦或是流行病学意义上的聚集。方法只是实现理论目的的技术手段,模型的理论涵义需要研究者慎重决定。

社会文化因素被纳入健康考量后,与社会科学联系紧密的定性方法进入学界视野。研究者开始意识到以“批判、定性甚至非表征的方式”对待健康问题的必要性[38]。例如康复景观由于涉及了对特定环境中多层含义的分析,一直是定性研究青睐的主题。通过观察、访谈、调查、参与等经典方法和摄影、录音、影像发声等创新手段,关注身份和叙事的定性研究提供了定量所不能的视角。采用这些方法的研究者认为个体的处境和经验可以是有效的认知方式,通过对研究对象的观察甚至互动发掘新鲜视角。例如吸烟在定量研究中大多仅作为一个负向变量出现,过分关注吸烟的医学影响,而忽视了吸烟可能带来的情感和社会福祉。新加坡的一项研究就通过对66名吸烟者的半结构化访谈和民族志观察,记录了吸烟区对提升吸烟者整体幸福感的作用,强调了吸烟区的空间赋权以及物质和社会文化空间对健康结果的塑造[39]。近年来,除了定性方法本身应用范围的扩大,在其内部还出现了越来越多研究者亲身参与的倾向,如参与式观察、同行访谈(go-along interview)、自我民族志等均由研究者加入了自身的沉浸式体验。

20世纪末,Elliott在面对定性方法的兴起时呼吁“让研究问题来决定研究方法”[40]。诚然,健康问题的答案里既包含客观现实也包括主观现实,定量和定性方法可以从不同的角度观察空间和地方在这些答案里的角色。但目前从文章数量上看,定量仍占据主导;且定量和定性关注的议题交集较少,无法起到互补作用[41]。这种定量和定性研究之间议题的分割在近年越发引起研究者的担忧。公共卫生的公众性、公益性决定了它在很大程度上是一门社会科学。在理论层面,本体论的动摇表现为后人类主义在各分支学科中的生长;在方法层面,方法的选择实际上前置了研究者以自身价值判断决定什么值得关注的过程,在某种程度上这或许比理论或议题的选择更能体现研究者的研究理想。也许正因如此,近年方法上的进展除了定量的不断复杂化和定性的不断多元化,还出现了不少对混合方法的探索。如最近在公共决策领域收获关注的参与式制图(Public Participation Geographic Information System, PPGIS),通过邀请受到决策影响的民众参与地理信息系统的设计,实现本土知识到制图形式的落地。在描述问题、评估现状、反馈意见、最终呈现的互动过程中,参与式制图通过整合不同视角的信息,尤其是边缘化群体对空间的定义和认知,一方面延展了地理信息系统的内涵,另一方面极大地提升了决策的影响效力。另外,也有不少研究将可穿戴技术和定性方法混合,采用可穿戴设备和地理信息系统记录研究对象的生理条件、运动状况和位置距离,再结合访谈、观察等定性方法捕捉叙事,既保留了实证主义的严谨,又通过和研究对象的直接对话实现了对个体细节的把握。定量、定性和混合方法在公共卫生研究中的创新极大开扩了研究视野的可能性,实证研究的广度和丰度不断拓展(见表2)。

Tab. 2
表2
表2常用研究方法实例
Tab. 2Examples of research methods
类型类型举例应用举例
定量多层次模型个体与城市对肥胖情况的差异影响[42]
空间分析育龄妇女卫生保健自主权的空间建模[43]
地理信息系统不同交通方式下的医疗卫生服务可达性[44]
定性访谈物质和社会环境对青少年到访开放空间的影响[45]
参与式观察休闲跑步中的具身实践与情感认知[46]
民族志乡村生活中的污名化与社会排斥对健康的影响[47]
混合参与式制图不同类型的城市公园对公众健康产生的效益差异[48]
地理信息系统+访谈公众对绿色空间的主观认知和实际体验[49]

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3 主要研究议题

3.1 对传染病大流行的响应

新冠肺炎疫情爆发以来,地理空间数据支撑的地图、仪表盘和模型将疫情分布状况、传播特征以及地区风险等级可视化,为决策提供了有力的信息支持[50,51]。面对这场一个多世纪以来最具破坏性的全球公共卫生事件,地理****及时响应,着眼于新冠肺炎疫情的空间表现和地理影响,为理解和对抗危机提供了多样的观点。

3.1.1 大流行重申了传染病研究的重要性 20世纪中叶前,传染病一直是研究的主旋律。但过去的几十年中,一方面,传染病的发病率、致残率和死亡率大大降低;另一方面,心血管疾病、糖尿病和癌症等慢性病的流行蔓延至中低收入国家,超过传染病成为主要的全球健康问题。然而,随着病原体、环境和宿主行为不断变化,新发与再发传染病层出不穷。其伴随着人口的快速流动、种间接触的增多和全球气候变化的加剧,持续威胁人类健康和社会稳定[52]

基础和临床医学之外,地方背景也成为了理解传染病的关键。在新冠肺炎大流行中,很大一部分的死亡人数都集中在最富裕的那些国家。要理解这样的结果,就必须综合考虑地区的自然条件、社会结构、城市化形态以及多种文化因素的影响。如Iwasaki等猜想日本人传统的非接触式问候和在冬天佩戴口罩的习惯可能是日本确诊病例远少于其他同等人口密度和老龄化水平国家的原因之一[53]。Cash等认为中低收入国家总体较低的确诊率和死亡率可能源于这些国家年轻化的人口结构和老人在家居住的社会现实[54]。归因之外,疫情的应对措施同样需要综合考量地方情境。南非的非正式住区内,定居点的密度和布局让2 m的社交距离几乎不可能实现[55]。在印度,交通设施的关闭使大量低收入群体无法获得必需的医疗卫生服务,儿童麻疹、腮腺炎和风疹疫苗的接种减少了69%[56];学校关闭影响了全球超过70%的年轻人,但在低收入国家中他们中只有18%有条件通过在线学习的方式继续学业,远低于高收入国家的65%[57]。妇女、儿童、低收入人群等脆弱人口总是在全球事件中承担更高的风险和负担,一刀切的防控措施将扩大已有的经济差距与社会不平等。公共卫生是公众性、公益性的,公共卫生问题的解决绝不能止步于数学和医学,研究者和决策者需要兼具全球视野和地方视角,“从群体的角度看待医学问题,用社会的方法解决医学问题”[58],以免走向“何不食肉糜”的道路。

3.1.2 大流行强调了地理学概念对理解全球事件的意义 在过去的几个世纪内交通和通讯技术不断发展,“地方失去了它们特殊性,变成了功能性的抽象概念”[59],但传染病的全球大流行以强烈的姿态召回了地理空间的重要性。“与他人交往时保持2 m的社交距离”[60],“将家改造成有办公氛围的工作间”[61],从前人们打招呼时关心“你怎么样”,现在人们打招呼时关心“你那儿怎么样”[62]。空间、地方、联系,扩散、距离、尺度等地理学的核心概念渗透进了每个人的日常;人与地方相互关联、相互塑造的共生关系越来越清晰。Mostafanezhad等研究了大流行期间来自东亚的游客是如何在历史上的种族地理因素和当代的地缘政治关系影响下被妖魔化的[63];Singh等记录了疫情中一线医务工作者由于工作场所被标记为不洁而受到的歧视、孤立与污名化[64];Tedeschi从非表征理论出发,采用自我民族志方法记录了自己从意大利到芬兰的行程,探索了大流行期间身体、法律与空间的相互作用[65]

疫情的传播和防控措施重新划定了流动性和可达性、配制了空间和地方的生产,深刻地改变了社会空间关系。而这些变化又反过来改变了人们生活与工作的地点、空间和方式[66]。和气候变化类似,传染病的流行在初期被大多数人视为遥远的、于己无关的,然后随着死亡病例的增多、确诊病例的接近,人们感知到的安全空间越来越狭窄,自己的国家、地区、社区、家庭逐渐不再安全。人们对未来风险的感知决定着人们的当下行为,而传染病大流行和气候变化一样挑战着大众和决策者的直觉和短期思维。Xie等通过对317名中国居民的线上调查,发现个体的感知理解在风险感知和隔离行为之间起积极的中介作用,呼吁更为知情的健康管理政策[67]。Mohamad通过观察社交媒体上的年轻人对社交距离叙事的本土化创作,思考了大流行中青年的空间参与和社会文化重构,呼吁开启青年地理、媒介和传播地理相关的学术讨论[68]

虽然引起这次疫情的新型冠状病毒来源尚不明确,但新冠肺炎疫情的全球大流行不仅仅是“自然”灾难已成共识[66],它与全球化和城市化进程的推进、人类生产生活对自然的破坏直接相关[69]。Adler等通过对美国境内11个城市群新冠肺炎疫情的追踪,认为城市群和国内外的紧密联系使它们更容易在疫情爆发早期呈现较高的暴露风险[70]。Connolly等探讨了城市化和新兴传染病之间的联系,认为未来的传染病防治需要将密集的城市网络、变化的城市生态关系、不平等的基础设施以及城市间的连通性作为关键要素考虑在内[71]。Gong等初步分析了疫情下中国各地区的区域韧性,呼吁将地方情境纳入区域韧性研究[72]。Acuto探讨了参与全球城市治理体系的积极意义并强调了城市平等议程在全球治理中的重要性[73]。Blue等呼吁将超越人类的地理学加入到公共卫生讨论中,以更好地理解人类之间、人类与其他物种之间、人类与环境之间的复杂关系[74]

3.2 对气候变化的响应

人类有纪录以来最热的十个年份有八个发生在过去的十年[75],并且世界范围内二氧化碳的排放量还在持续上升[76]。气候变化是21世纪全球健康最大的威胁[77],正在世界范围内影响人类的健康与福祉,地理学可以帮助识别、准备、适应这种影响。

3.2.1 气候变化产生差异性的健康影响 气候变化加剧了环境的敏感性和脆弱性,其对经济和基础设施的破坏还将影响基层医疗卫生服务的供给,对公众生理和心理健康产生进一步的不利影响。虽然在全球尺度上已有大量成熟的研究论证了气候变化对公众健康各方各面的影响路径,但是一方面气候变化对不同地区的影响不同,另一方面虽然大多数人都认可气候变化的影响是真实存在的,但他们普遍认为这种影响距离自己所处的时空非常遥远[78],很难感受到切身的紧迫感。因此各个国家和地区迫切需要充分的具有地方意义的研究支撑起因地制宜的公共卫生工作。

另外,气候变化带来的健康影响是不公平的。在全球尺度上,经济发展水平相对较低的岛屿国家更容易受到影响[79]。在国家尺度上,沿海地区易受风暴潮和海平面上升威胁[80],而在沿湖地区由于降水增加和水体渐温导致的有害藻类增殖将严重威胁居民的饮用水安全[81]。在地方尺度上,儿童、老年人、低收入人群、残疾人、慢性病患者等原本就承担着较高健康风险的人群更可能受到气候变化的影响。有研究表明一氧化碳的平均浓度增加0.8 ppm,抑郁急诊患者将增加15.5%[82];在患有心血管疾病的人群中,PM10污染的加剧甚至将自杀风险提高了18.9%[83]。社会经济地位较低的人群更容易受到空气污染的影响[84],且在极端高温事件中呈现较高的死亡率[85]。气候变化带来的健康风险严重损害了边缘化的地方和群体,使脆弱人口更加脆弱,进一步加剧了健康结果的极化与不平等。

3.2.2 气候变化下的公共卫生发展策略 在全球气候变化威胁日益突出、减排行为难以立即奏效的情况下,采取有针对性的、以提高抵抗和恢复能力为目标的适应战略已经成为世界各国的重要选择,包括改造城市老旧空间、重视防灾减灾规划、构建韧性城市等[86,87]。气候变化和新冠肺炎疫情是近年来最显著的公共卫生外部压力,Manzanedo等总结了二者的共同点:干预措施滞后、影响不可逆转、加剧社会和空间不平等、削弱国际团结、预防成本低于治疗成本,并强调了即时响应压力、快速采取行动的必要性[88]。气候变化不仅是21世纪全球健康最大的威胁,更是21世纪全球健康最大的机遇[89]。在全球层面,全球化的不断推进使环境变化、疾病传播、人口迁徙和医疗革新等过程均在全球范围内进行[90];在地方层面,气候变化与社会、经济、政治条件相结合,驱动人口迁徙与社会变迁[91,92]。地理学研究讨论全球趋势和当地环境之间的相互作用,为气候变化下的公共卫生战略提供全局视野与全球参与。

3.3 对健康老龄化的关注

世界范围内老龄人口的数量正持续上升,他们面临着最多的健康问题,也是医疗卫生服务最重要的消费者。随着公共卫生工作的重点从治疗转向创造提供健康支持的地方,地理学对老龄人口健康的研究视角也由空间延伸出去,开始深入探究老龄人口的地方经历、身体实践与情感体验[93],致力于为他们布置适宜的、积极的、自由的环境,支撑其生理与心理健康以对抗社会隔离。

3.3.1 对老龄人口的污名化 年龄具有深刻的社会学意义。虽然老人会给人德高望重、知识渊博的印象,但更多的情况下老人面临着针对年龄的歧视。这种歧视破坏了积极的代际互动,纵容甚至鼓励了对老人的回避和不敬,表现为贬低其工作贡献、经济上的剥削、忽视其获得的医疗卫生服务质量等[94]。负面描述与年龄的绑定已对老龄人口的健康产生了不利影响,与健康老龄化的愿景背道而驰。与性别歧视、种族歧视类似,年龄歧视引发的年龄隔离在空间、社会和经济上日益显著[95]。新公共卫生运动主张审视更广泛的、尤其是社会文化属性的健康决定因素,已有研究表明对衰老和健康的积极态度可以在一定程度上帮助机体抵御衰老[96]。积极态度的形成需要挑战年龄歧视等观念定型和污名化,这些根深蒂固的社会态度与价值观表征在老龄人口与他们生活地方之间的动态关系中[97],地理学帮助聚焦身份的多样性和流动性,强调了地方如何影响特定语境下对老龄人口的态度[98,99]

3.3.2 构建对老龄人口友好的环境 人们生活的环境大多由壮年人设计,有时会考虑儿童、但甚少关注老龄人口的需求。在外界环境的压力下,老龄人口需要不断调整自身行为以适应不断流失的身体资本[100]。地理学关注消极环境因素对老龄人口健康的影响,主张为他们提供多元便利的活动和空间以帮助他们将环境转化为资源。康复景观研究大量涉及了这一议题,面向老龄人口的公共花园和园艺活动几乎是康复景观研究最为经典、最具代表性的主题[21,101]。这类研究一方面特别关注了特定活动对老龄人口生理、心理、情感的积极作用,另一方面强调了康复景观的社会文化构建,主张人们在生命的不同阶段以不同方式体验环境、与环境共同实现历史、社会、文化的身体构建。除此之外,养老模式的选择也是研究热点,围绕就地安养和机构养老孰优孰劣的争论积累了大量实证研究。就地安养的支持者认为家可以提供养老机构无法提供的私人空间、情感意义和安全感,他们关注居住地在依恋、意义和身份构建中的重要作用,地理学考量在此贡献了大量对老龄化、健康和地方之间动态关系的批判性解释[102]。机构养老的支持者则认为家并不是保证老人安全感与自由感的必要条件,机构养老可以在保障社区完整性的同时提供更为专业的医疗卫生服务。争论之外,2017年的一篇涵盖了世界各地340项研究的综述显示,就地安养和机构养老的健康结果并没有显著差异[103]。对于不同的养老模式,研究焦点应放在模式特征与人的匹配,帮助人们做出知情的健康选择上。

3.4 对健康不平等问题的关注

健康问题存在广泛的社会梯度,而不平等一直是地理学的核心议题之一。20世纪末以来,新公共卫生和地理学的转型促使研究者将目光转向社会经济因素,强调解释而非描述的健康不平等研究开始成为热门[90],这包括医疗卫生服务可达性、健康风险以及健康结果的不平等。需要注意的是,不平等本身只是一个可测量的描述性概念,用于表示健康过程和结果的分异。例如,极限运动爱好者的预期寿命往往低于其他项目的拥趸,这是个人选择或人生历程差异造成的健康结果不平等,不等同于社会或政治意义上的不公平。一直以来都存在观点将矛头指向个体责任,认为穷人对自身不负责的行为导致了他们恶劣的健康结果,或妇女外出就业使家庭成员的健康结果恶化[104]。但大量经验证据已支持了社会决定论者的立场,即由于生命早期经历对健康存在的长远影响、微观和宏观环境将健康风险强加于个体的现实情况,人们对健康的投入并不是自由意志的结果。也就是说,大多数健康不平等确实是由某种形式的不公平或不公正造成的,这包括由于选择权剥夺导致的健康损害、生活或工作环境暴露、医疗卫生服务可达性不足、与健康有关的社会流动等[105]。识别出这些结构性因素需要研究者以对现实情况的理解、对正义、社会和健康不平等起源的认知提供规范判断[106]

3.4.1 健康不平等中的空间 评估健康不平等通常有两种方法,第一种是测量人口中未分组个体间健康状况的分异并将研究限于无价值倾向的描述;第二种是根据某些特征划分群体并检验他们之间健康过程和结果的差异[107]。第二种方法存在的问题是先验分组假定了存在不平等的社会阶层,可能导致因果关系的预先判断。由于任何形式的不平等都必然存在一定的空间表达,在所有的先验分组方式中,空间分组也即传统的地理学方法是相对为研究者所接受的。采用这种方法的研究通常从健康现象的空间不均衡出发,揭示空间单元的特定社会经济轨迹。这里需要注意两点,首先,对空间不平等的关注只是健康不平等研究的起点。把空间作为一个包罗万象的类别来控制自然、经济、社会、文化、宗教等因素可能会掩盖空间与健康的复杂关系[108],忽视不平等的结构性基础。其次,并非所有的空间不平等都是不公平的,也并非所有空间平等都是公平的。如对于健康不平等研究中备受关注的邻里效应,Rosenberg就批评道,设计良好的街道布局、有组织的社区活动、良好的邻里氛围,包含了这些要素的理想邻里实际上是“田园诗般的郊区中产阶级社区”[109],当人们依照这样的愿景在城市中构建了“健康的空间”,最有可能的结局是原居民由于生活成本的提高被排除在这些空间之外[110]。由于因果关系论证的缺乏,社会公平和空间平等之间的桥梁还未明晰。近年来,研究者试图透过康复景观、非表征理论等视角构建起多样的解释框架。通过本体性安全、命运掌握等概念的引入,社会经济不平等和健康结果不平等之间可能的中介不断丰富,研究思路不断扩展[111,112]

3.4.2 健康不平等中的地方 区别于空间,地方不仅由人和物组成,更是由社会关系构建的。这些表征了社会公平的象征性维度和空间实体相互作用,共同影响地方上的公众健康[113]。伴随着公共卫生和地理学的社会文化转向,研究者开始思考人们如何被地方不好的名声所“污染”以及人们如何与这些“污染”抗争,“地方的污名化”由此被提出以概括边缘化社区的负面表征对社区居民健康产生的影响。Tabuchi等通过对大阪地区1994名居民的调查发现人们感知到的地方歧视与抑郁症和精神疾病诊断显著相关[114]。Thomas通过访谈经历了经济衰退和媒体贬损的后工业城镇梅瑟蒂德菲尔中的56名青少年,发现他们内化了外界对家乡的贬损,限制了对自身身份和前景的叙述,并尝试在访谈中把污名转移给其他地方以减轻自身承担的健康压力[115]。Keene等总结了污名化影响健康的三种途径:物质资源可达性、压力和对压力的响应、身份的形成与管理[116]。居住在被隔离社区的居民不仅因基础设施退化承担更高的健康风险,而且常被限制了教育和就业机会。社区环境的恶化随之被居民纳入自身的身份和声誉构建[117],进一步威胁了他们的健康状况。地方的污名化可以源于人口结构、建筑环境等各种因素,但最终由社会文化构建,因而可以呈现超距作用。在这个意义上,地方的污名化研究是对邻里效应的延伸和拓展,其通过考虑更广泛的社会意义和文化逻辑在特定地方环境中的表现,为邻里效应提供了启发和参考。

3.5 融合健康考量的城市规划

新发与再发传染病、污染带来的暴露风险、城市生活导致的慢性病和精神压力与城市生活的福利相伴而生。城市规划一直都是公共卫生的重要环节,较为知名的一个案例是1854年伦敦混乱的城市给排水系统致使了霍乱的爆发,事后伦敦市政疏导了泰晤士河的堤道,设计了一套全新的包括下水道、道路、铁路在内的基础设施系统。但是随着公共卫生的发展,研究者逐渐发现旨在降低暴露风险的城市规划措施似乎已不再充分。“当人们都患上同样的心血管疾病、糖尿病、抑郁症,是时候认识到他们的健康状况不是由于缺乏自律,罪魁祸首其实是我们的建成环境”[118]

3.5.1 满足活动需求的道路交通和社区环境 已有大量研究表明经常性的体力活动可以有效降低心血管疾病风险、促进心理健康、降低死亡率[119]。但据世界卫生组织统计,全世界四分之一的成年人和五分之四的青少年都未实现推荐的活动量。20世纪80年代起,研究者开始探索通过环境干预增加公众日常体力活动的可能性。该领域的核心理念是“步行性”,研究者主张通过社区和街道的设计提高可步行环境的可达性和舒适性,鼓励公众以步行或其他非机动方式出行。步行性的许多关键概念如地点、位置、距离、运动都与地理学紧密相关,早期研究大多将视线投向物质环境的生产,如将楼梯安装在显著位置,提供方便、安全、富有吸引力的步行路线等。但身体的活跃是一种流动的状态而非静态的指标,提高人们的活跃程度需要更广泛、更多元的思考方式。多年来研究者从步行性的测量、步行性的影响因素、公众对步行性的感知、步行性对公众健康的影响、可步行环境的生产五个方面积累了丰富的文献[120,121,122,123]。另外,步行安全[124]与步行文化[125]也受到了一些关注。但步行性的概念也不可避免地受到了一定的批判。首先,没有充足的研究可以建立起建成环境和步行行为的因果关系,旨在提高步行性的城市设计很可能只是为那些已经习惯步行的人提供了一个更舒适的步行环境[126]。其次,主流的实证研究对较大样本量的需求使研究者丢失了对参与者身体和步行背景的注视,同时方法论的规范性要求还使研究者失去了一定因地制宜的自由度,只能提供高度同质化的干预措施。另外,城市中的步行者可能大多拥有充裕的可支配时间和良好的居住环境[127],因此针对步行性的研究将不可避免地倾向城市中一小部分人的兴趣和利益。

3.5.2 促进公众健康的开放空间 街道广场、户外游戏场、城市滨水区、公园绿地以及自然风景区等城市开放空间不仅提供了体力活动和社会交往的空间,也是人们实现自我疗愈的重要场所。尤其是通过“绿色空间”和“蓝色空间”提升公众福祉的可能性正受到越来越多的关注。“绿色空间”广义上包含各种形式的城市绿地,对公众健康的积极影响通常以三种途径作用:降低城市伤害(如减少污染、噪音暴露、缓解城市热岛),促进精神恢复(如提升注意力、降低压力水平)和营造健康社区(如鼓励户外活动、促进社会凝聚力)[128]。已有大量研究证实了绿色空间对生理和心理健康的益处[129],但也有一些研究得出了相背的结论[130,131]。实证结果之间的分歧、对影响机理剖析的缺乏导致绿色空间和健康间的关联还未有很好的解释,而绿色空间的扩张又无疑将挤压住房、教育和其他基础设施的存在。因此研究者开始质疑扩大绿色空间对城市大部分居民的现实意义,他们警告过度追求理想中的绿色城市实际上将加剧不平等[110]

需要注意的是,步行性和公共空间并非万能工具,正如Herrick所说,“空间的内在价值需要研究、理解,并在可能的情况下加以培养……这涉及到意义、价值、社区、包容、尊重、忠诚等一系列难以量化衡量的更加模糊、无形的品质”[132]。城市中的人们必须拥有生活、交流和进步的意愿,否则对公共空间的干涉不过是“在问题的边缘隔靴搔痒”[133]。城市规划已展现出促进公众健康的巨大潜力,但因果证据的缺乏限制了研究的现实意义。研究者和决策者需要充分理解建成环境对行为和健康的影响机制,这不只是出于对研究纯度的追求,更是建设人人共享的包容、安全、韧性、可持续的城市与住区之前提。在对城市进行改造前,决策者必须清楚知道他们的行动将如何改变城市。否则,这些措施不仅收效甚微,甚至可能将城市拉入更为剧烈的不平等漩涡。

4 启示与展望

结合国外研究积累及国内研究和实践现状,可以提出以下几点启示与展望:

关注广泛的本土公共卫生议题。公共卫生问题具有强烈的在地性,西方社会背景下公共卫生研究理论及模型在国内背景下的应用尚存在不确定性。如对于邻里效应,国内存在独特的户籍制度、单位大院等邻里类型,需要关注这种情况下特殊的影响机制和作用效果;对于康复景观,东西方自然观、养生文化的差异是理论研究丰饶的土壤,需要立足本土建立系统性的理论框架,积累本土化的经验知识。公共卫生关系到人类基本生存的延续,与人的尊严、赋权和福祉息息相关,应推动国际视野与本土问题的互动,把握不断涌现的新兴定量技术及质性方法,因地制宜探索地理学参与公共卫生问题的思路,不断强化研究的应用性和指导性,为本土公共卫生建设提供认识基础和决策依据。

探索理论建设与多学科方法的融合。过去的几十年间地理****在健康和公共卫生领域内多有概念创新,但始终缺乏系统性、综合性的研究框架。对此Philo总结道:“这一领域过去是、现在依然是令人愉快的零碎状态……我们用手边‘能用’或‘值得思考’的理论来解决问题,因此在汇聚这些实际上关注着不同历史、实践甚至政治目的的理论时显得有些混乱、粗心或厚脸皮。……但我们的研究结果并没有因为缺乏理论纯度而变糟糕”[134]。地理学具有交叉性、综合性的特点,强调对关联因素进行综合然后在一个更高的层次上观察和解决现实矛盾,其通过对地方、人、健康之间联系的阐述,为理解地方如何影响健康的跨学科议程贡献了重要的批判性理解。在以地理学视角切入公共卫生问题的过程中,有必要继续发挥地理学作为桥梁学科的优势、实现多学科多视角的理论深化,同时探索更严谨、更综合的研究方法,重视理论与实践联结的科学性与连贯性。

强化尺度研究。尺度是地理学的核心概念之一,健康和地方的关系有显著的尺度意义。多层次模型有时会涉及不同尺度上的邻里效应和情境效应,但健康领域的尺度选择、尺度转换和尺度效应一直未能很好地理论化。于定量分析而言,尺度研究的缺乏导致了数据属性值聚合过程中的信息缺失,由此引起的可塑性面积单元问题降低了研究的稳健性。于定性分析而言,尺度研究的缺乏限制了地理学独特视角的发挥。如新冠肺炎疫情中的主要防控措施之一封锁,使公众在束缚于狭小空间的同时感受到了来自遥远地方的压力和威胁,认知上的频繁尺度切换影响了公众对身体、健康和地方的感知,却鲜少有研究者关注了尺度在这里扮演的角色。

致谢:

真诚感谢匿名评审专家在论文评审中所付出的时间和精力,评审专家对本文概念界定、行文思路等方面的修改意见,使本文获益匪浅。同时,感谢南京大学毛熙彦副教授在文章修改过程中提供的帮助。


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Accurate assessment of anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and their redistribution among the atmosphere, ocean, and terrestrial biosphere - the "global carbon budget" - is important to better understand the global carbon cycle, support the development of climate policies, and project future climate change. Here we describe data sets and methodology to quantify the five major components of the global carbon budget and their uncertainties. Fossil CO2 emissions (E-FF) are based on energy statistics and cement production data, while emissions from land use change (E-LUC), mainly deforestation, are based on land use and land use change data and bookkeeping models. Atmospheric CO2 concentration is measured directly and its growth rate (G(ATM)) is computed from the annual changes in concentration. The ocean CO2 sink (S-OCEAN) and terrestrial CO2 sink (S-LAND) are estimated with global process models constrained by observations. The resulting carbon budget imbalance (B-IM), the difference between the estimated total emissions and the estimated changes in the atmosphere, ocean, and terrestrial biosphere, is a measure of imperfect data and understanding of the contemporary carbon cycle. All uncertainties are reported as +/- 1 sigma. For the last decade available (2009-2018), E-FF was 9.5 +/- 0.5 GtC yr 1, E-LUC 1.5 +/- 0.7 GtC yr 1, G(ATM) 4.9 +/- 0.02 GtC yr(-1) (2.3 +/- 0.01 ppm yr(-1)), S-OCEAN 2.5 +/- 0.6 GtC yr(-1), and S-LAND 3.2 +/- 0.6 GtC yr(-1), with a budget imbalance B-IM of 0.4 GtC yr(-1) indicating overestimated emissions and/or underestimated sinks. For the year 2018 alone, the growth in E-FF was about 2.1% and fossil emissions increased to 10.0 +/- 0.5 GtC yr 1, reaching 10 GtC yr(-1) for the first time in history, E-LUC was 1.5 +/- 0.7 GtC yr(-1), for total anthropogenic CO2 emissions of 11.5 +/- 0.9 GtC yr(-1) (42.5 +/- 3.3 GtCO(2)). Also for 2018, G(ATM) was 5.1 +/- 0.2 GtC yr(-1) (2.4 +/- 0.1 ppm yr(-1)), S-OCEAN was 2.6 +/- 0.6 GtC yr(-1), and S-LAND was 3.5 +/- 0.7 GtC yr(-1), with a B-IM of 0.3 GtC. The global atmospheric CO2 concentration reached 407.38 +/- 0.1 ppm averaged over 2018. For 2019, preliminary data for the first 6-10 months indicate a reduced growth in E-FF of +0.6% (range of -0.2% to 1.5 %) based on national emissions projections for China, the USA, the EU, and India and projections of gross domestic product corrected for recent changes in the carbon intensity of the economy for the rest of the world. Overall, the mean and trend in the five components of the global carbon budget are consistently estimated over the period 1959-2018, but discrepancies of up to 1 GtC yr(-1) persist for the representation of semi-decadal variability in CO2 fluxes. A detailed comparison among individual estimates and the introduction of a broad range of observations shows (1) no consensus in the mean and trend in land use change emissions over the last decade, (2) a persistent low agreement between the different methods on the magnitude of the land CO2 flux in the northern extra-tropics, and (3) an apparent underestimation of the CO2 variability by ocean models outside the tropics. This living data update documents changes in the methods and data sets used in this new global carbon budget and the progress in understanding of the global carbon cycle compared with previous publications of this data set (Le Quere et al., 2018a, b, 2016, 2015a, b, 2014, 2013).

Watts N, Adger W N, Agnolucci P, et al. Health and climate change: Policy responses to protect public health
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To investigate the potential correlation between ambient air pollution exposure and emergency department (ED) visits for depression.A hierarchical clusters design was used to study 27 047 ED visits for depression in six cities in Canada. The data used in the analysis contain the dates of visits, daily numbers of diagnosed visits, and daily mean concentrations of air pollutants as well as the meteorological factors. The generalized linear mixed models technique was applied to data analysis. Poisson models were fitted to the clustered counts of ED visits with a single air pollutant, temperature and relative humidity.Statistically significant positive correlations were observed between the number of ED visits for depression and the air concentrations of carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and particulate matter (PM10). The percentage increase in daily ED visits was 15.5% (95% CI: 8.0-23.5) for CO per 0.8 ppm and 20.0% (95% CI: 13.3-27.2) for NO2 per 20.1 ppb, for same day exposure in the warm weather period (April-September). For PM10, the largest increase, 7.2% (95% CI: 3.0-11.6) per 19.4 ug/m3, was observed for the cold weather period (October-March).The results support the hypothesis that ED visits for depressive disorder correlate with ambient air pollution, and that a large majority of this pollution results from combustion of fossil fuels (e.g. in motor vehicles).

Kim C, Jung S H, Kang D R, et al. Ambient particulate matter as a risk factor for suicide
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The effects of both ambient air pollution and socioeconomic position (SEP) on health are well documented. A limited number of recent studies suggest that SEP may itself play a role in the epidemiology of disease and death associated with exposure to air pollution. Together with evidence that poor and working-class communities are often more exposed to air pollution, these studies have stimulated discussion among scientists, policy makers, and the public about the differential distribution of the health impacts from air pollution. Science and public policy would benefit from additional research that integrates the theory and practice from both air pollution and social epidemiologies to gain a better understanding of this issue. In this article we aim to promote such research by introducing readers to methodologic and conceptual approaches in the fields of air pollution and social epidemiology; by proposing theories and hypotheses about how air pollution and socioeconomic factors may interact to influence health, drawing on studies conducted worldwide; by discussing methodologic issues in the design and analysis of studies to determine whether health effects of exposure to ambient air pollution are modified by SEP; and by proposing specific steps that will advance knowledge in this field, fill information gaps, and apply research results to improve public health in collaboration with affected communities.

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The potential link between climate change, migration, and conflict has been widely discussed and is increasingly viewed by policy makers as a security issue. However, considerable uncertainty remains regarding the role that climate variability and change play among the many drivers of migration and conflict. The overall objective of this paper is to explore the potential pathways linking climate change, migration and increased risk of conflict. We review the existing literature surrounding this issue and break the problem into two components: the links between climate change and migration, and those between migration and conflict. We found a large range of views regarding the importance of climate change as a driver for increasing rates of migration and subsequently of conflict. We argue that future research should focus not only on the climate-migration-conflict pathway but also work to understand the other pathways by which climate variability and change might exacerbate conflict. We conclude by proposing five questions to help guide future research on the link between climate change, migration, and conflict.

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Boland L, Légaré F, Perez M M B, et al. Impact of home care versus alternative locations of care on elder health outcomes: An overview of systematic reviews
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Background: Many elders struggle with the decision to remain at home or to move to an alternative location of care. A person's location of care can influence health and wellbeing. Healthcare organizations and policy makers are increasingly challenged to better support elders' dwelling and health care needs. A summary of the evidence that examines home care compared to other care locations can inform decision making. We surveyed and summarized the evidence evaluating the impact of home care versus alternative locations of care on elder health outcomes.Methods: We conducted an overview of systematic reviews. Data sources included MEDLINE, the Cochrane Library, EMBASE, and CINAHL. Eligible reviews included adults 65+ years, elder home care, alternative care locations, and elder health outcomes. Two independent reviewers screened citations. We extracted data and appraised review quality using the Assessing the Methodological Quality of Systematic Reviews (AMSTAR) checklist. Results were synthesized narratively.Results: The search yielded 2575 citations, of which 19 systematic reviews were eligible. Three hundred and forty studies with 271,660 participants were synthesized across the systematic reviews. The categories of comparisons included: home with support versus independent living at home (n = 11 reviews), home care versus institutional care (n = 3 reviews), and rehabilitation at home versus conventional rehabilitation services (n = 7 reviews). Two reviews had data relevant to two categories. Most reviews favoured home with support to independent living at home. Findings comparing home care to institutional care were mixed. Most reviews found no differences in health outcomes between rehabilitation at home versus conventional rehabilitation services. Systematic review quality was moderate, with a median AMSTAR score of 6 (range 4 - 10 out of 11).Conclusions: The evidence on the impact of home care compared to alternative care locations on elder health outcomes is heterogeneous. Our findings support positive health impacts of home support interventions for community dwelling elders compared to independent living at home. There is insufficient evidence to determine the impact of alternative care locations on elders' health. Additional research targeting housing and care options for the elderly is needed.

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In 1984, the 32 member states of the World Health Organization European Region took a remarkable step forward in agreeing unanimously on 38 targets for a common health policy for the Region. Not only was equity the subject of the first of these targets, but it was also seen as a fundamental theme running right through the policy as a whole. However, equity can mean different things to different people. This article looks at the concepts and principles of equity as understood in the context of the World Health Organization's Health for All policy. After considering the possible causes of the differences in health observed in populations--some of them inevitable and some unnecessary and unfair--the author discusses equity in relation to health care, concentrating on issues of access to care, utilization, and quality. Lastly, seven principles for action are outlined, stemming from these concepts, to be borne in mind when designing or implementing policies, so that greater equity in health and health care can be promoted.

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In this glossary, the authors address eight key questions pertinent to health inequalities: (1) What is the distinction between health inequality and health inequity?; (2) Should we assess health inequalities themselves, or social group inequalities in health?; (3) Do health inequalities mainly reflect the effects of poverty, or are they generated by the socioeconomic gradient?; (4) Are health inequalities mediated by material deprivation or by psychosocial mechanisms?; (5) Is there an effect of relative income on health, separate from the effects of absolute income?; (6) Do health inequalities between places simply reflect health inequalities between social groups or, more significantly, do they suggest a contextual effect of place?; (7) What is the contribution of the lifecourse to health inequalities?; (8) What kinds of inequality should we study?

Tunstall H, Shaw M, Dorling D. Places and health
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This glossary aims to provide readers with some key conceptual tools with which to address the issue of place and health; it is hoped that it will provoke thought and debate on the range of ways that places are connected to health.

Rosenberg M. Health geography I: Social justice, idealist theory, health and health care
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An emerging body of research suggests that those who reside in socially and economically marginalized places may be marked by a stigma of place, referred to as spatial stigma, which influences their sense of self, their daily experiences, and their relations with outsiders. Researchers conducted 60 semistructured interviews at partnering community-based organizations during summer 2011 with African American and Latina/o, structurally disadvantaged youth of diverse gender and sexual identities who were between 18 and 26 years of age residing in Detroit, Michigan. The disadvantaged structural conditions and dilapidated built environment were common themes in participants' narratives. Beyond these descriptions, participants' framings and expressions of their experiences in and perceptions of these spaces alluded to reputational qualities of their city and particular areas of their city that appear related to spatial stigma. Young Detroit residents articulated the ways that they experience and navigate the symbolic degradation of their city. © The Author(s) 2016.

Tabuchi T, Fukuhara H, Iso H. Geographically-based discrimination is a social determinant of mental health in a deprived or stigmatized area in Japan: A cross-sectional study
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In a rapidly urbanizing world, many people have little contact with natural environments, which may affect health and well-being. Existing reviews generally conclude that residential greenspace is beneficial to health. However, the processes generating these benefits and how they can be best promoted remain unclear.During an Expert Workshop held in September 2016, the evidence linking greenspace and health was reviewed from a transdisciplinary standpoint, with a particular focus on potential underlying biopsychosocial pathways and how these can be explored and organized to support policy-relevant population health research.Potential pathways linking greenspace to health are here presented in three domains, which emphasize three general functions of greenspace: reducing harm (e.g. reducing exposure to air pollution, noise and heat), restoring capacities (e.g. attention restoration and physiological stress recovery) and building capacities (e.g. encouraging physical activity and facilitating social cohesion). Interrelations between among the three domains are also noted. Among several recommendations, future studies should: use greenspace and behavioural measures that are relevant to hypothesized pathways; include assessment of presence, access and use of greenspace; use longitudinal, interventional and (quasi)experimental study designs to assess causation; and include low and middle income countries given their absence in the existing literature. Cultural, climatic, geographic and other contextual factors also need further consideration.While the existing evidence affirms beneficial impacts of greenspace on health, much remains to be learned about the specific pathways and functional form of such relationships, and how these may vary by context, population groups and health outcomes. This Report provides guidance for further epidemiological research with the goal of creating new evidence upon which to develop policy recommendations.Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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