, 王开泳The scientific connotation of sustainable utilization of ecological space in urbanized areas
WANGFuyuan, WANGKaiyong通讯作者:
收稿日期:2018-04-10
网络出版日期:2018-10-20
版权声明:2018《地理研究》编辑部《地理研究》编辑部 所有
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主旨聚焦：城市化地区生态空间可持续利用主张以生态空间综合发展替代原有的单一控制性保护,统筹协调区域生态安全维护和文化服务提供,推进生态系统精细化管理,保障生态文明建设。
1 引言
生态空间是国土空间的重要组成部分,也是生态系统服务的核心载体。生态空间可持续利用已经成为中央政府宏观管理的一项重要工作。党的十八大报告提出了“大力推进生态文明建设,促进生产空间集约高效、生活空间宜居适度、生态空间山清水秀”的要求,说明“三生空间”协调及生态空间保护和改良,成为生态文明建设的重点内容。国务院《“十三五”生态环境保护规划》提出“构建生态公共服务网络,开发和提供优质的生态教育、休闲、健康养生养老等生态服务产品。”[1]。在生态文明建设的背景下,仅仅强调生态空间的单一保护已经远远不够,应该积极提倡和实践生态空间可持续利用的综合管理理念,进一步提升生态系统服务价值。生态空间（ecological space）是地理学的研究核心——人地关系地域系统中地理环境的重要构成部分。在城市化地区,生态空间的支持（支持生物多样性等）、供给（水源供给等）、调节（气候调节等）与文化服务（休闲等）的复合性特征明显,其与社会的交互作用也非常强烈[2]。它不仅是保护和发展城市自然生态系统的屏障,还能为当地居民提供休闲放松、社交和参与体育活动的场所,促进心理恢复,加强社会互动,减少在污染和噪声环境中的暴露时间,是居民身心健康、幸福感和生活质量的重要保障[3]。与一般生态空间相比,城市化地区的生态空间具有更为突出的游憩服务、心理服务、保存地方记忆和信息等社会和文化服务价值[4]。
然而,中国不少城市化地区开发强度较大,城市增长与生态系统服务发展的矛盾较为突出,生态空间的持续利用面临着巨大的压力。为此,环境保护部印发的《全国生态保护“十三五”规划纲要》提出“推动城市生态建设与空间布局优化,提升城市生态服务能力,加快城乡绿道、郊野公园等城乡生态基础设施建设”[5]。城市化地区生态空间研究应在构建生态安全屏障的基础上,探讨如何从单一生态保护向持续利用转型,塑造开放、共享、高效利用的生态空间格局,改善城市化地区人居环境质量,为中国城市化地区可持续发展提供理论和政策支撑。
城市化地区生态空间是城市地理学和城市规划领域的研究热点。城市化地区生态空间可持续利用开始于19世纪30年代,当时英国的大城市传染病流行,并开始发生周期性霍乱。1833年,英国议员罗伯特·史兰尼（Robert Slaney）提出在大城镇开辟绿色公共空间,为人们提供健康运动的场所[6]。19世纪50年代后,欧美等国大力推动城市公园建设,开辟市民休憩的开放场所。此后,生态空间的可持续利用理念进一步拓展和深化,一些研究者主张将生态空间看成是一系列产品[7],提倡人们应该用心经营、呵护生态空间。当前,主要欧美国家已经构建了高效、可持续发展的生态开放空间体系,如英国大都市的环城绿带、美国城市密集地区的“公园+绿道”的生态开放空间体系、德国莱茵美茵城市群的区域公园体系、荷兰兰斯塔德城市群的绿心模式。
长期以来,中国****对生态空间的研究主要以控制性保护为导向,主要关注碳储量与降温增湿功能等自然生态功能评价及其价值化[8]、生态用地需求规模测算、基于生态安全的生态空间格局、规划与保护[9]。关注的学科领域主要是生态学、城市规划、资源科学等[9]。从管理实践看,中国城市化地区生态空间也是以保护为主导。在城市化地区,生态空间是否只需要严格保护,有无开发利用的必要?事实上,城市化地区不少生态空间是闲置的,居民的可进入性不强,仅仅承担着一种生态调节功能,与生态空间天然的游憩等多重功能不相吻合,与社会大众的休闲需求也不匹配。另外,城市一些未利用地、废弃地和污染地,通过生态整治和修复后,都可以转化成生态开放空间,如安徽淮南、江苏徐州等将采煤沉陷区改造成湖泊生态休闲空间,临汾市区通过整治汾河和岸线,开辟了沿岸生态开放空间。理论上,在权衡和兼顾不同类型生态系统服务的前提下,进行适度开发利用是可行的。上文提及的欧美国家生态空间利用经验也证明了这一观点。
中国城市化地区生态空间的可持续利用尽管起步较晚,但在部分城市化地区也正在开展系统的探索和实践。如珠江三角洲城市群的绿道规划就以综合开发为指导理念,发挥了生态空间维系生态安全、提供休闲服务等多种功能,体现了生态空间规划理念从单纯的“环境保护观”演化到“区域与社会整体观”“宜居区域观”[10],起到了良好的示范作用。那么,在城市化地区,如何提升生态空间的复合功能和价值,构建可持续、高效的生态空间综合利用格局?如何进行治理?这成为中国地理学、生态学、建筑学以及社会学等跨学科领域的重要科学问题,而兼有人文社会科学和自然科学特点,擅长多时空、多要素综合集成分析的地理学能够发挥越来越重要的作用。本文在把握概念的涵义及当前研究动态和局限的基础上,提出了城市化地区生态空间可持续利用的研究框架,包括目标导向、指导理念、研究趋向、研究重点等内容。
2 城市化地区生态空间及其可持续利用的内涵
2.1 城市化地区生态空间是城市地理学的重要概念
对城市化地区的界定还没有达成共识。城市规划领域认为城市化地区由城市核心及其周围的密集居住区两部分组成,相当于中国的城市建成区[11],但具体边界的划定方法多样。在中国主体功能区划中,城市化地区是指“以提供工业品和服务产品为主体功能的地区,也提供农产品和生态产品”,它包括工业化和城镇化重点开发或优化开发区 域[12]。据此,将城市化地区界定为两类：从单个城市看,是指城市建成区。它可以包括被城市建成区包围的湖泊、水体和山体,以及建设密度较大,城市功能、配套设施基本完备的村镇地区,具体操作时可因地制宜,例如南京市建成区划定时考虑与城市生态格局和基层行政界线保持一致[13]。从区域尺度看,城市化地区是指国家或省法定规划划定的城市群范围。国内外与生态空间类似的概念有绿色空间（green space）、绿地、生态用地。城市化地区生态空间是指除人工硬化表面之外,能够为居民直接、间接提供生态系统服务的自然或半自然的用地类型[14]。从生态系统完整性的角度考虑,城市化地区生态空间的地域范围应该由城区延伸至郊区。城市化过程具有多尺度特征,各尺度生态空间具体范畴的界定可存在一定的差异。市域、城区等较小空间尺度需要考虑到社区层面居民的邻近休闲需求,将所有生态空间纳入研究范畴,这与广义层面的城市生态用地[15]、绿色空间[16]和绿地[17]的范畴基本一致。在城市群等较大的区域尺度,参考区域绿地[18]和区域生态用地[19]的概念,将生态空间范畴界定为城市间的生态单元或生态单元组合,一般分布于城市建成区外围,有的也延伸到城区,其生态功能具有区域性影响和作用。
生产、生活与生态空间是城市空间的三大核心组成部分。生态空间具有为两类空间提供生态环境支撑的功能。生态空间可持续性与生产生活的适宜程度,是城市化地区人地关系协调的决定性因素[20]。因此,城市化地区生态空间应该成为城市地理学研究的重要内容。
2.2 城市化地区生态空间类型丰富多样
官方的土地利用分类体系未对生态用地进行界定和分类。不过,《土地利用现状分类》（GB/T 21010-2007）[21]中的耕地、园地、林地、草地、公园与绿地、水域及水利设施用地的部分、其他土地等是生态空间界定过程中考虑的地类[22,23]。如果以住建部颁布实施的《城市用地分类与规划建设用地标准》（GB50137-2011）[17]为基础进行分类,则非建设用地（包括水域、农林用地和其他非建设用地）[24]和绿地[25]常是生态空间界定时考虑的地类。有关城市生态空间的研究提出三种分类方式（表1）。第一类是基于地块主要生态功能进行分类,如将生态空间划分为生态保护用地、游憩用地、防护用地等,又或是将其划分为水源涵养空间、生物多样性保护空间等。这一方法争论的焦点在于农业生产用地。如有****指出,以生产功能为主的耕地、养殖水面等不应作为生态空间[20]。而实际上,农业用地也具有一定的生态功能[23],在一定情境中可以将其纳入生态空间范畴。
Tab. 1
表1
表1城市化地区生态空间利用的类型
Tab. 1Typologies of ecological space utilization in urbanized areas
| 方法 | 概念 | 一级分类 | 二级分类 | 来源 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 土地 生态 功能法 | 城市生态 空间体系 用地 | 城市绿地 | 公园绿地、生产防护绿地、附属绿地、其他城市绿地 | 何梅等[26] |
| 生态保育用地 | 山体水体、湿地、水源保护地、森林公园、自然保护区、 生态廊道 | |||
| 景观游憩用地 | 风景名胜区、郊野公园、生态休闲旅游区 | |||
| 农业用地 | 耕地、园地、牧草地、其他农用地 | |||
| 区域生态 用地 | 自然用地 | 天然森林、天然草地、天然湿地、沼泽地、天然水域、沙 漠、冰川与永久积雪、盐碱地、苔原 | 邓红兵等[19] | |
| 保护区用地 | 自然保护区、风景名胜区、防护用地、水体缓冲用地 | |||
| 休养与休闲用地 | 交通绿化用地、疗养地、体育运动设施用地、 观光农业用地、公共绿地及屋顶绿地、殡葬用地 | |||
| 废弃与纳污用地 | 废弃地、垃圾处理地 | |||
| 城市生态 用地 | 自然用地 | 水域、农林用地 | 刘晟呈[27] | |
| 保护区用地 | 自然保护区、风景名胜区、森林公园、饮用水水源保护区 | |||
| 游憩、文化休闲 用地 | 郊野公园、观光农业用地、文物古迹保护区、公园绿地 | |||
| 生态防护用地 | 生态廊道用地、防护用地 | |||
| 生态恢复用地 | 工业迹地恢复用地、未利用地恢复用地 | |||
| 城市生态 空间规划 类型 | 城市绿地 | 公共绿地（公园等）、生产防护绿地等 | 詹运洲等[23] | |
| 城市林地 | 在主城区设置的楔形绿地、郊野公园、森林公园、生态敏 感区等。 | |||
| 环城绿带 | 控制城市蔓延而再城区边缘布置的绿带,通常为林地。 | |||
| 生态廊道 | 保护生物多样性和景观多样性的带状廊道 | |||
| 生态保育区 | 以耕地为主的基本农田集中区 | |||
| 生态禁建区 | 包括一级水源保护区、风景名胜区、自然保护区等。 | |||
| 城市生态 用地 | 服务型生态用地 | 居民区和工厂的绿地、道路两旁的绿带、城市周边的防 沙、防风林带,高速公路和铁路周围防噪声的防护林带, 海岸的防潮林带,城市广场绿地,人工湖等 | 邓小文等[28] | |
| 功能型生态用地 | 主要包括城市范围内的自然保护区、天然河道、湖泊、湿 地、城市范围内大面积、成规模的林、草地等 | |||
| 土地利用/覆被法 | 城市生态 空间 | 农用地 | 林地、牧草地 | 陈爽等[22] |
| 建设用地 | 水库水面 | |||
| 非利用土地 | 荒草地、盐碱地、沼泽地、沙地、裸土地、裸岩石砾地、 其他未利用土地 其他土地：河流水面、湖泊水面、苇地、滩涂、冰川及永 久积雪 | |||
| 城市生态 用地 | 绿色生态空间用地 | 耕地、园地、林地、牧草地、其他农用地 | 关小克等[29] | |
| 蓝色生态空间 用地 | 水库水面、河流水面、湖泊水面、养殖水面、苇地、滩 涂、坑塘水面 | |||
| 未利用生态空间 用地 | 未利用土地 | |||
| 城市绿色 空间 | 水域、林地、果园地、耕地、建设用地、城市绿地 | 潘影等[25] | ||
| 城市生态 用地 | 湿地生态用地 | 主要指城市中天然的或人工的河道、湖泊、坑塘 | 王振健等[30] | |
| 绿化生态用地 | 防护绿地、公共绿地和庭院绿地 | |||
| 方法 | 概念 | 一级分类 | 二级分类 | 来源 |
| 土地利用/覆被法 | 生态用地 | 人工生态用地 | 耕地、园地、设施农用地、人工水面、防护林地 | 白钰等[31] |
| 自然生态用地 | 自然林地、草地、水域、滩涂、特殊生态功能用地、稀疏 及无植被地 | |||
| 城市绿色空间 | 人类主导的景观、人类和自然共同主导的景观、自然植被 主导的景观 | Tian等[32] | ||
| 生态用地 | 原生生态用地 | 天然林地、天然草地、水域、滩涂、特殊生态功能用地、 稀疏及无植被地 | 龙花楼等[24] | |
| 半人工生态用地 | 耕地、园地 | |||
| 人工生态用地 | 人工林地、人工草地、绿化用地、道路防护绿地、人工水 面、设施农用地 | |||
| 综合法 | 城市绿色空间 | 公园、湖泊、自然地、教堂庭院（churchyards）、运动场 （sports fields）、公用地（common areas）、农用地（agriculture fields）、防护绿地（green buffer） | Panduro等[7] | |
| 城市绿色空间 | 私人花园、居住区半私用绿色空间、半私人绿色空间中的 私人区域、公共绿色空间、公共和商业绿色空间、教堂庭 院和墓地、基础设施绿地（infrastructural green）、产业绿 地（industry green）、运动区、农用地、水滨、森林 | Neuenschwander等[16] |
新窗口打开
第二种是根据土地利用/覆盖的类型进行分类。如将生态空间分为绿色生态空间用地、蓝色生态空间用地、未利用生态空间用地。但在“非利用地”或“非建设用地”的归属上出现了争议。有研究将非利用地全部划入生态用地[22,29],而另有研究认为,只有那些历史上形成的生态条件恶化、只能保持现状而无法作为其他用途的未利用土地,才可纳入生态用地的范围[33]。
第三类方法是综合方法,即综合考虑地表植被覆盖、土地归属和生态功能等对生态空间进行分类,常见于国外针对具体城市的研究。在这种分类方法中,农用地被视为生态空间的一种类型。
从生态空间可持续利用的角度,城市化地区的农用地和部分未利用地均具有多功能利用的潜力,是潜在的生态空间。通过对生态空间的可持续利用,拓展其文化服务,可以提升生态空间的复合价值。例如,对农用地进行多功能性开发利用,附加观光休闲功能,不会妨碍其生产功能;部分未利用地经过生态整治和修复后,可以开辟成生态开放空间,不仅会强化它们的支持、调节等服务,还增加了文化服务价值。至于生态条件恶劣、只能维持现状的未利用地,尽管能提供一定的生态系统服务,但没有复合利用的潜力,不作为生态空间可持续利用的研究对象考虑。
2.3 城市化地区生态空间可持续利用是增进人类福祉、建设可持续城市的重要路径
生态空间保护、利用是两种不同理念导向的生态系统管理活动。生态保护是指通过各种人为保护活动使自然生态系统少受各种干扰影响而继续保存其原生状态[34],为此而设置的各类保护区、划定生态红线即属于这种类型,其导向就是对生态系统进行严格控制,保障生态安全。生态空间的可持续利用则体现了保护和开发并重的综合管理思路。对城市化地区而言,生态空间的可持续利用是指在保护和发展区域主导生态系统服务（调节、供给或支持等）的前提下,人类因地制宜地修复、使用和改造生态空间,以提升其社会与文化功能,实现多种服务可持续发展,表现为生态空间利用的结构、功能和布局等结果。城市可持续性指城市维持和提高生态系统服务与人类福祉的能力[35],包括人们对物质环境和设施、生活环境的满意和感知质量。在城市化地区,生态空间的潜在功能和利益包括生态功能与环境效益、经济利益、社会文化功能[4]（图1）。生态空间可持续利用主张以综合开发替代原有的单一控制性保护,符合生态系统精细化管理理念,有利于进一步增进人类福祉,促进城市化地区可持续发展。
显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT图1城市化地区生态空间的潜在功能与利益[
-->Fig. 1The potential functions and benefits of ecological space in urbanized areas
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3 城市化地区生态空间利用的研究动态与局限
3.1 研究动态
在中国知网核心期刊和CSSCI来源期刊数据库分别输入城市、城市群与生态空间利用、生态用地、绿色空间、绿地、公园10种主题词组合,在Web of Science数据库中输入urban、city与green space、ecological land、park6种主题词组合,检索并筛选得到城市化地区生态空间利用研究文献涉及100种期刊,共计349篇文献。其中,城市规划与发展类期刊12种,文献数占总文献数的28.7%,生态类期刊11种,文献数占13.2%,园林与森林类期刊5种,文献数占15.2%,环境类期刊16种,占9.2%,其他各类别的文献数占比都在8%以下。对文献的研究内容进行梳理,归纳其研究动态。（1）更多审视社会经济因素的影响。从社会经济因素的视角考察城市生态空间的利用,成为研究趋势。这首先表现在城市生态空间可持续供给影响的社会经济因素有所梳理和关注,揭示了人口数量[37]和密度[38]、收入[39]、GDP与城市化水平[40]、城市致密化[41]、休闲步道建设[42]、土地财政依赖[43]与生态空间供给的关系。其次,各国研究人员对城市生态空间利用质量的评价综合考虑了可达性、设施、管理等人文要素和规模、植被、景观等自然生态要素,其中人文因素的考量占据越来越重要的地位[44,45,46,47]。最后,对城市生态空间的经济价值评价研究也发现了月收入、使用频次[48]、多功能性及绿色植被的质量[49]、生态空间稀缺性[50]、感知环境价值[51]、感知利益、地方依赖与情感依恋[52]、积极情绪和满意度[53]等因素对经济价值评价产生正向作用。而微观生态空间的社会价值评估研究也成为了热点[54,55,56]。
（2）更加重视与人类福祉的关联。德国、澳大利亚城市实证研究均得出居住环境中的生态空间正向影响生活满意度[57,58]。德国城市水域生态空间的心理与健康利益主要包括促进沉思、改善情绪、促进社会参与和体育运动[59]。在中国城市,人均绿地面积与居民幸福正向相关[60]。生态空间对老年人的利益包括身体利益、心理利益和社会利益[61]。城市生态空间对人类健康的效应受社会文化因素、生态空间因素、居民积极使用[62]等因素的干扰。其中,社会文化因素包括性别[63]、人种[64]、社会经济地位[65]、孤独和社会支持[66]等;生态空间本身因素包括可达性[67]、生态空间类型[68]、生物多样性[69]、感知特征[68,70]等。
（3）更加注重空间格局分析。研究内容主要有城市化地区生态空间利用格局的集聚特征、可达性、公平性与连通性。对北京市的实证研究发现市域绿带游憩空间分布具有明显的集聚和热点地区,影响因素有资源环境、政策、交通、游憩活动类型[71]。在GIS与RS等技术的支撑下,从生态空间景观格局、质量分布、可达性格局等方面揭示绿地分布公平性[72,73]也受到重视,并发现城市公共生态空间分布公平性受区位、人口聚居地的种族和社会经济地位[74]、生态空间的形态与结构[75]、城市化和绿化政策[76]的影响。城市群尺度研究较少,国内研究者对长江中游城市群不同等级森林公园的空间分布与可达性进行了比较研究[77];国外研究发现巴黎大区商业区生态空间斑块增加了整个生态网络的连通性,特别是在郊区[78]。
（4）开始重视区域分析与规划。中国****使用生态评价[29]、生态网络理念[79]以及地理模拟与空间优化系统（UeoSOS）[80]等诊断生态空间利用格局,提出空间规划策略。而城市规划和土地工程的实践者对城市绿地规划、生态修复和整治规划进行了大量探索,产生较多的规划编制成果。城市群尺度的生态利用规划原理探索较少,研究包括：以长株潭绿心为例,从城乡生态空间的识别与重构、保护与利用、推进机制等方面对城乡生态空间规划进行探索[81];介绍珠三角区域绿道网规划编制的内容和生态学原理[82]。
（5）开始关注空间治理原理。欧美发达国家重视对城市内生态空间精细化治理的研究,但目前研究数量还较少。相关研究指出,相比绿地规划和指引,实施维护标准和规范对提高吸引力更有效[83];城市生态空间维护管理原则包括协调、沟通、激励、权力制约[84];分权与利益相关者参与是大都市地区生态系统服务治理的有效模式[85]。
3.2 研究局限
综上,各学科城市生态空间利用的研究更加重视社会经济因素、空间分析、区域分析与规划、空间治理及与人类福祉的关联。但同时也显现出城市化地区生态空间可持续利用研究尚不系统,未来研究方向也不够明确。具体表现在：（1）中国城市化地区生态空间可持续利用的研究目标尚未明确。对城市化地区这一复杂系统而言,生态空间的利用需要具备什么导向,遵循什么理念,目前缺少清晰论述。
（2）实证研究缺少多尺度考察和区域综合集成分析。当前研究主要聚焦城市空间尺度,上升到城市群的生态空间可持续利用的空间组织,是中国城市群等高度一体化区域面临的紧迫的实践课题。城市群已经成为中国城市化的主体形态,但目前城市群地区生态系统—社会经济的综合集成分析还比较缺乏。
（3）内容方面,当前的研究聚焦城市绿地空间形态、影响因素、保护格局与规划研究,城市化地区生态空间综合利用的时空演变过程、调控机制和精细化治理等研究内容仍缺少关注。
研究动态和局限启示未来研究亟待建立跨地理学、生态学、环境学、社会学和建筑学的生态空间可持续利用研究体系。人文—经济地理学作为一门综合性交叉科学,在城市化地区生态空间利用与区域可持续发展研究中凸显了自身的学科价值。本文拟构建该领域的研究框架,推动中国城市化地区生态空间可持续利用研究不断完善和发展。
4 建立城市化地区生态空间可持续利用的研究框架
4.1 目标导向
随着社会经济的发展,人们对城市人居环境质量的要求提高,生态系统服务不仅需要体现基本的支持、供给和调节服务,而且被期望提供最大化的文化服务。生态空间可持续利用的目标就是在作为地理环境的生态空间与人类福祉之间建立更紧密的联系,在保障基本服务的前提下,转向探讨文化服务价值提升的过程、格局与机制,增进居民福祉,规划和管理实践重点也将转向适度强化生态空间社会文化属性,提升生态空间多功能复合价值,最终实现居民福祉的最大化（图2）。
显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT图2城市化地区生态空间可持续利用的目标导向
-->Fig. 2The goal of sustainable ecological space utilization in urbanized areas
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具体而言,要聚焦于实现以下三个方面的目标：
（1）创建平衡的城市化地区生态系统服务格局。生态空间可持续利用是兼顾生态保护和空间利用的有效方式。由于受自然生态格局和城市化格局的影响,城市化地区内生态空间规模及其生态系统服务价值分布不均衡,导致一些地区生态系统服务供给不足,而部分地区生态空间闲置。因此,研究要考虑推进城市化地区生态空间可持续利用的统筹规划和管理,实现生态系统服务的城乡统筹、城际统筹,创建相对均衡的生态系统服务格局[86]。
（2）提高城市化地区生态空间的公共价值和保护动力。在保护自然生态系统的前提下,通过相关研究,在山水林田湖等空间元素之间建立起多功能性的生态廊道,形成多层次多元化的生态开放空间体系,将这些空间单元内部的生态和环境价值充分释放出来,并在政府、企业、非政府组织和居民等利益相关者间建立起他们对生态空间最大公约数的价值判断,进而促进生态空间的保护。
（3）提升城市化地区人居环境和居民生活质量。中国城市化地区生态开放空间配置不足,结构不合理,难以满足居民日益增长的公共活动和日常休闲需求。然而,健康的城市（镇）必须保障居民亲近自然、放松身心的游憩机会。生态空间可持续利用研究要在把握基本生态安全格局的基础上,致力于推动城市化地区人居环境的优化,提升居民生活质量。
4.2 指导理念
（1）主体功能为前提。生态空间单元的生态系统服务具有主次之分。在生态空间可持续利用中,必须优先保护生态空间的主导功能或优先功能。例如,在邻近城市居住区的不是生态敏感区的生态空间,以营造开放空间和游憩功能优先;在具有多种生态系统功能的地域,以支持、调节功能优先;在具有多种调节功能的地域,以主导调节功能优先,如在城市的水源保护区以水源涵养功能优先,其他形式的利用强度须与之协调等。（2）空间正义为原则。空间正义强调具有社会价值的资源和机会在空间和人群的合理分配是公正的[87]。生态空间是城市化地区重要绿色基础设施,生态空间可持续利用需要考虑打破行政区划壁垒,完善生态开放空间网络,保障生态空间的连续性与景观格局的完整性,实现生态系统服务的均衡配置。对于绿色基础设施缺乏的地区,应当考虑进行生态整治和修复,新增人人可享的亲近自然、游憩的生态空间,努力实现城市化地区环境的均好性。
（3）分类利用为导向。根据生态空间的结构、区位及其生态重要性、敏感性,确定其可持续利用的功能导向,因地制宜地赋予生态空间的生产防护、游憩、活动健身和交往等功能。例如,在人口分布密集的城市建成区,需要配置数量充足的可进入、可使用的生态空间,在城市拆迁改造时注意“添绿留白”。而郊区大型生态空间的导向可以是休闲化改造,增强游憩服务,提升其复合价值。生态廊道则可以结合绿道建设,赋予其运动、休闲等功能。
（4）系统分析为保障。以人地关系地域系统的思维,统筹考虑城市化地区生态空间斑块、廊道、基质的合理利用,构建点线面结合、点状开发、面线保护的利用格局,完善城市生态开放空间网络,推动城市化地区人的要素（人口、城镇、交通等）与地的要素（自然生态要素）的耦合协调,实现城市化地区生态空间利用格局与生态安全、景观格局相协调。
4.3 研究趋向
（1）区域异质性与因地制宜。生态系统服务供给与消费具有显著的空间异质性和区域差异性。城市化地区生态空间利用的区域分析,包括三方面的内容：一是融入区域差异思想,立足生态空间、城镇空间和城市人口聚集的区域差异,把握生态空间可持续利用模式、过程和机理的时空异质性;二是以区域相互依赖理念为指导,探讨生态空间可持续利用的空间相互依赖性;三是剖析城市化地区生态空间的利用类型、质量和服务价值与自然生态本底、人口、交通和公共服务设施等的关系与相互作用,最终得出生态空间可持续利用区位选择、规模、利用强度与空间配置,构建和谐的人类活动与生态开放空间地域系统。（2）区域耦合性与空间分析。鉴于区域系统内部各个子区域属性的差异化,城市化地区生态空间的研究要注重区域耦合与协调发展的研究。以地理信息系统（GIS）为技术平台,利用遥感（RS）解译、地理调查等方法采集和提取生态空间和人文要素数据,对有关的点、线、面三大要素内部及彼此之间空间耦合的进行GIS空间分析和可视化表达。具体应用方向包括生态空间利用与社会经济活动等空间数据关联性建模分析和空间制图等,生态空间可持续利用的适宜性、质量和效率的综合评价与空间制图,生态空间可持续利用格局优化模拟与决策等。
（3）区域整体性与综合分析。城市化地区生态空间和景观的价值体现在美学、生态、文化、经济、传承、历史、学习、维持生命、游憩、精神、生活、健康等多方面[88]。随着城市化水平的不断提升,城市居民对于生态空间的体验需求也不断提升,另一方面,中国城市社会经济仍然保持中高速发展,与生态要素的交互作用强烈。相关研究要具有区域整体的思维,综合考察生态空间与社会经济要素空间的耦合集成关系、机制与调控机理,并提出相应规划和管理政策。据此,在整合Niemel?[89]和Sreetheran[90]的社会—生态研究框架的基础上,新增经济与制度因素、时空差异因素、规划设计因素,构架了城市化地区生态空间可持续利用研究的多要素综合分析框架（图3）。
显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT图3城市化地区生态空间社会经济—生态整合研究框架
-->Fig. 3The social-ecological integration approach of ecological space in urbanized areas
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4.4 重点内容
（1）城市化地区生态空间利用的类型与格局。城市化地区生态空间利用类型有哪些,利用模式是否合理,利用质量如何,利用的分布特征是什么,供需是否平衡?都是需要探讨的问题。从生态空间利用的供给和需求两侧分析入手,归纳城市化地区生态空间供给和利用的主要类型和模式。以人文要素—生态要素的综合集成思维,分析生态空间综合利用的供给与需求、质量、效率、生态系统服务范围等的空间格局,形成揭示现状格局的技术方案,揭示城市化地区各空间尺度生态空间利用的空间特征与分布规律。（2）城市化地区生态空间利用的演化与机制。城市化地区生态空间供给和利用的演化特征、演化原因和趋势是什么?是值得探索的基础理论问题。未来研究需要全面分析各生态空间单元的利用特征、模式的变化,归纳总结城市化地区生态空间利用格局的时空演化过程,概括其演变的特征和影响因素,揭示利用格局的形成机理,并对未来格局演化趋势进行模拟和预判,以加强对生态空间可持续利用的监测和预警。
（3）城市化地区生态空间可持续利用评价与调控机理。城市化地区生态空间利用适宜性怎么样?可持续利用的优化目标和路径是什么,该实施什么样的调控策略?要回答这些问题,首先需要对城市化地区生态系统服务进行评价,明确生态系统服务重要性和生态敏感性的空间格局,识别生态空间可持续利用的类型与强度导向及其格局。然后结合社会需求,探讨优化思路与调控机理,归纳合理的利用模式。例如,对于具有进一步利用潜力的生态空间,着重进行具体的生态空间适宜性方面的研究,探讨如何进行利用,增强游憩、社会交往、科普与环境教育功能等。
（4）城市化地区生态空间可持续利用规划与治理。城市化地区生态空间可持续利用该如何进行空间组织和统筹规划,该怎样开展精细化治理?具有较大的实践需求。顺应城市化地区地理脉络、功能导向和人居保障需求,确保生产、生活和生态空间相协调,整合提升山水林田湖、绿地等生态景观环境质量和休闲、活动功能,提出生态空间可持续利用和改造的路径及相应的空间管制（开发强度管制、政策分区管制等）思路,优化生态开放空间的配置,发展“三生空间”比例协调、生态空间多功能协调发展的空间模式。加强社会经济—生态系统的综合集成分析,探寻生态空间利用的精细化治理原理,创造优质生态开放空间。
4.5 多尺度研究建议
不同空间尺度的城市化地区的地理要素分布关系与空间结构具有差异,生态空间可持续利用研究方向也要有所区别。参考国务院《关于调整城市规模划分标准的通知》,根据市区人口规模,将城市分为小城市、中等城市、大城市（含大城市、超大城市和特大城市）三个尺度。另外,城市群作为中国城市化重点地区,同样被纳入考虑。每类空间尺度具有自身规划和管理需求,也有相应的研究需求。对于小城市（含镇）而言,城区常住人口在50万以下,建成区规模小,城市要素分布关系相对简单,其研究重点是突出生态空间可持续利用规划与治理研究,包括城市公园配置与精细化治理、居住空间绿色环境的营造等,提升生态开放空间的规模和质量,建设绿色宜居城市。
对于中等城市而言,城区常住人口50万~100万,城市化、工业化发展快,土地利用和城市地理要素空间结构比小城市复杂,需要对生态空间利用评价、优化调控机理与规划进行专题研究,构建与城镇化发展、生态安全相适应的生态空间利用格局和治理模式。
对于大城市而言,城区常住人口100万以上,建成区和经济规模较大,工业化、城市化仍处于中高速发展中,土地利用类型和城市地理要素组成与分布复杂,城镇化与生态空间可持续利用的矛盾突出,需要加强生态空间利用格局、评价与优化调控、可持续利用规划研究。
对于城市群,区内城市（镇）分布密集,土地利用类型和城市地理要素分布关系错综复杂,应该注重生态空间的区域联动与共享,不仅要加强城市群生态空间利用的区域格局、评价和调控机理与优化配置研究,还要加强其演化过程与机制研究,对生态空间可持续利用演变进行动态监测和模拟,形成城镇化与生态系统服务协调发展格局。
5 结论
城市化地区的生态空间研究,应以增进人口福祉为目标,推进生态空间的可持续利用,实现生态—经济—社会—文化多元复合价值。从研究重点看,要划分城市化地区生态空间利用的类型,分析空间格局和演化过程,在进行分析评价的基础上探讨生态空间可持续利用的调控机理,并提出规划思路与治理举措。在研究尺度上,需要从大中小城市和城市群等不同空间尺度进行研究。从研究视角上,既要注重因地制宜,又要进行区域整体性的空间分析。在新型城镇化和生态文明建设背景下,城市化地区的生态空间研究将会越来越受到关注,成为优化区域和城市空间结构,推进生态空间山清水秀的重要支撑。The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
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被引期刊影响因子
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| [2] | . <p>维持和改善城市生态系统服务与人类福祉、促进可持续发展是当前城市生态学研究的重要议题之一.本文对城市生态系统服务的已有研究进行综述：基于城市生态系统服务的概念与内涵，总结了城市生态系统服务的主要特征，即人为主导性、高需求性、异质性、动态性、多功能性、社会经济属性以及负效应；当前城市生态系统服务的评价方法主要有指标法、价值评估法与模型模拟法；在城市生态系统不同类型服务中，调节服务与文化服务对提高城市居民健康尤为重要；城市生态系统服务的权衡主要表现在支持服务与文化服务之间、调节服务与文化服务之间.最后，总结了未来城市生态系统服务发展的主要方向，特别强调了城市生态系统服务研究在城市景观规划与设计中的重要作用.</p> . <p>维持和改善城市生态系统服务与人类福祉、促进可持续发展是当前城市生态学研究的重要议题之一.本文对城市生态系统服务的已有研究进行综述：基于城市生态系统服务的概念与内涵，总结了城市生态系统服务的主要特征，即人为主导性、高需求性、异质性、动态性、多功能性、社会经济属性以及负效应；当前城市生态系统服务的评价方法主要有指标法、价值评估法与模型模拟法；在城市生态系统不同类型服务中，调节服务与文化服务对提高城市居民健康尤为重要；城市生态系统服务的权衡主要表现在支持服务与文化服务之间、调节服务与文化服务之间.最后，总结了未来城市生态系统服务发展的主要方向，特别强调了城市生态系统服务研究在城市景观规划与设计中的重要作用.</p> |
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| [4] | . Traditionally, cities have been perceived as 090004aggression against the environment090005 and urban land uses are supposed to have profound negative impacts on surrounding ecosystems. According to these notions, cities are suffering from an increasing deficit of green spaces and habitats. Green spaces and recreational areas are becoming a precious good within the urbanised world and a resource to preserve and enlarge if possible. Although a variety of urban 090004green land uses090005 exists, this article focuses on examining their functionality in quantitative and qualitative terms using the concepts of quality of life and ecosystem services. We develop an integrative scheme that incorporates components of both concepts, and we ask further how they might be affected by uneven spatial development of shrinking cities possessing 090004islands of growth090005. Using this approach we can show, first, that both concepts partially are complementary using similar variables, but following different mental models. Second, we make explicit the fact that shrinkage has positive as well as negative implications for urban green land use patterns and functionality. |
| [5] | |
| [6] | |
| [7] | . In this paper we propose a categorization of green space into eight different types and quantify their impact on housing prices in the city of Aalborg using the hedonic house price method. The categorization was made manually according to an idealized description of the eight types of green space and a rating system in which each green space was rated according to accessibility, maintenance levels and neighboring negative land-use. The hedonic house price schedule for each of the green spaces was estimated using a generalized additive model, which allows for a data driven adjustment of underlying omitted spatial processes. To our knowledge the use of a spatial generalized additive model is novel to the hedonic valuation literature. We find that types of green space, which are rated highly in terms of accessibility and maintenance level, have high implicit prices whereas types with low ratings are not identified or provide ambiguous results. Green space buffering unattractive land-use such as infrastructure and industry is found to provide negative implicit prices despite controlling for the negative neighboring land-use. Our results clearly indicate that green space is not a uniform environmental amenity but rather a set of distinct goods with very different impacts on the housing price. |
| [8] | . 城市绿地的科学评价为绿地的规划和管理提供了参考,对人们正确认识和改造绿地建设起着重要的作用,为城市绿地生态功能的发挥提供了重要的依据和保障。以绿地结构的评价为基础,总结了城市绿地生态功能、服务评价、健康评价的方法和研究进展;提出了城市绿地生态风险评价的基本方法并概括了城市绿地可持续评价的研究方向。结果显示:当前城市绿地的生态评价在范围上逐渐从微观尺度发展到宏观尺度,日益强调绿地的生态服务功能,重点关注于绿地的碳储量与降温增湿功能与效益评价以及价值化研究;城市绿地的健康评价和可持续性评价均尚处于初级的探索阶段。指出了城市绿地生态评价的关键在于评价结果在管理和规划中的应用,在评价内容上必须关注各部分的结合,在评价方法上应该借助基础研究的长期监测、评价的量化以及多学科交叉的渗透。 . 城市绿地的科学评价为绿地的规划和管理提供了参考,对人们正确认识和改造绿地建设起着重要的作用,为城市绿地生态功能的发挥提供了重要的依据和保障。以绿地结构的评价为基础,总结了城市绿地生态功能、服务评价、健康评价的方法和研究进展;提出了城市绿地生态风险评价的基本方法并概括了城市绿地可持续评价的研究方向。结果显示:当前城市绿地的生态评价在范围上逐渐从微观尺度发展到宏观尺度,日益强调绿地的生态服务功能,重点关注于绿地的碳储量与降温增湿功能与效益评价以及价值化研究;城市绿地的健康评价和可持续性评价均尚处于初级的探索阶段。指出了城市绿地生态评价的关键在于评价结果在管理和规划中的应用,在评价内容上必须关注各部分的结合,在评价方法上应该借助基础研究的长期监测、评价的量化以及多学科交叉的渗透。 |
| [9] | . . |
| [10] | |
| [11] | |
| [12] | |
| [13] | . . |
| [14] | . 土地资源利用及其管理问题已成为制约城市可持续发展的瓶颈之一,城市生态用地能够提供重要的生态系统服务,对于改善城市环境,保障城市生态安全和城市健康起着重要的作用。本文在总结国内外土地分类体系及生态用地研究进展的基础上,探讨了城市基本生态用地的概念,并提出了以土地生态系统服务为基础的分类体系。将城市土地分为"生态用地"、"建设用地"和"生态交错地"三大类型,并进一步分为8个二级类型,24个三级分类单元。以期为城市土地生态服务功能的提高及生态用地的合理管控提供一定的理论依据。 . 土地资源利用及其管理问题已成为制约城市可持续发展的瓶颈之一,城市生态用地能够提供重要的生态系统服务,对于改善城市环境,保障城市生态安全和城市健康起着重要的作用。本文在总结国内外土地分类体系及生态用地研究进展的基础上,探讨了城市基本生态用地的概念,并提出了以土地生态系统服务为基础的分类体系。将城市土地分为"生态用地"、"建设用地"和"生态交错地"三大类型,并进一步分为8个二级类型,24个三级分类单元。以期为城市土地生态服务功能的提高及生态用地的合理管控提供一定的理论依据。 |
| [15] | . 作为城市地域自然生态系统服务供给的基本载体,生态用地基于土地利用/土地覆被的内在关联将人类社会发展与自然生态演替耦合关联在一起,已成为统筹解决城市建设扩展与自然生态保护矛盾的重要综合途径;城市生态用地的需求测算直接决定供需均衡分析结果,是城乡统筹生态用地规划与管理的关键环节。本文在系统梳理生态用地概念内涵的基础上,对比分析了生态需求与生态用地需求的概念异同;提出基于空间与功能的城市生态用地需求测算概念框架,并据此将已有测算方法归并为经验判定法、生态系统服务法、空间格局法3大类,从综合性、代表性、阈值与规模、位置等方面对比分析了法定定额法、历史趋势预判法、生态足迹法、碳氧平衡法、生态安全格局法等具体方法的基本特征及其优缺点;最后将下一步研究的重点趋向概括为基于土地生态功能的城市生态用地分类、基于土地生态格局的城市生态用地效益综合测算、基于多目标情景的城市生态用地功能综合权衡、基于生态用地供需平衡分析的城市生态腹地识别4个方面。 . 作为城市地域自然生态系统服务供给的基本载体,生态用地基于土地利用/土地覆被的内在关联将人类社会发展与自然生态演替耦合关联在一起,已成为统筹解决城市建设扩展与自然生态保护矛盾的重要综合途径;城市生态用地的需求测算直接决定供需均衡分析结果,是城乡统筹生态用地规划与管理的关键环节。本文在系统梳理生态用地概念内涵的基础上,对比分析了生态需求与生态用地需求的概念异同;提出基于空间与功能的城市生态用地需求测算概念框架,并据此将已有测算方法归并为经验判定法、生态系统服务法、空间格局法3大类,从综合性、代表性、阈值与规模、位置等方面对比分析了法定定额法、历史趋势预判法、生态足迹法、碳氧平衡法、生态安全格局法等具体方法的基本特征及其优缺点;最后将下一步研究的重点趋向概括为基于土地生态功能的城市生态用地分类、基于土地生态格局的城市生态用地效益综合测算、基于多目标情景的城市生态用地功能综合权衡、基于生态用地供需平衡分析的城市生态腹地识别4个方面。 |
| [16] | . Urban green spaces offer multiple ecosystem services (ES), which provide a variety of benefits to human well-being. Yet in urban planning they are not taken into account systematically. Recently new tools have been developed integrating ES into procedural modeling and visualization to raise stakeholder awareness for the explicit ES trade-offs that have to be made. These tools yet do not allow fast and comprehensive integration of ES provision in urban environments. In this paper we show how urban green space typologies can be linked to ES provision for facilitating collaboration between stakeholders of different backgrounds. Based on a generic typology green spaces were mapped and linked with information on potentially provided ES and their parameters. Further, pattern designs of the green space types were described with a form-based code. Both the map of green space types and the pattern designs were integrated into the parametric modeling and visualization chain of Esri CityEngine resulting in 3D visualizations of the green space patterns and correlating ES indicators. The green space typology allows for integrating different kinds of knowledge from both science and practice communities. The procedural model enables rapid interactive visualization of urban patterns and calculation of simple indicator values on the provision of ES. The simple approach for mapping green space types with low data requirements and the generic green space design patterns allow for transferability to other places and application to large areas. The developed approach is simple and fast yet comprehensive to communicate the vital importance of all green space types within the urban environment. |
| [17] | . . |
| [18] | |
| [19] | . 随着自然资源持续利用的思想、理论逐步深入和发展，生态用地分类及规划研究具有重要意义，成为土地资源利用研究和生态建设工作的重点。总结了国内外生态用地的研究进展，在土地生态系统服务的基础上，提出了生态用地指的是区域或城镇土地中以提供生态系统服务为主的土地利用类型，可将区域土地分为“生态用地”、“生产用地”和“生活用地”三大类型，生态用地按照不同生态系统服务分为自然用地、保护区用地、休养与休闲用地和废弃与纳污用地4个二级类型，进一步分为20个三级类型。生态用地的分类可为建立合理的土地利用生态分类体系和区划提供理论基础。 . 随着自然资源持续利用的思想、理论逐步深入和发展，生态用地分类及规划研究具有重要意义，成为土地资源利用研究和生态建设工作的重点。总结了国内外生态用地的研究进展，在土地生态系统服务的基础上，提出了生态用地指的是区域或城镇土地中以提供生态系统服务为主的土地利用类型，可将区域土地分为“生态用地”、“生产用地”和“生活用地”三大类型，生态用地按照不同生态系统服务分为自然用地、保护区用地、休养与休闲用地和废弃与纳污用地4个二级类型，进一步分为20个三级类型。生态用地的分类可为建立合理的土地利用生态分类体系和区划提供理论基础。 |
| [20] | . . |
| [21] | . . |
| [22] | . 长三角地区自20世纪90年代后期以来，大城市向外扩张及郊区城市化作用共同推动城市空间的加速扩展，在政府干预下，生产、生活性用地与生态性用地间表现出复杂的双向流动特征。 鉴于生态性用地在城市生态系统中的服务功能，以及人文因素在解释城市土地利用/土地覆盖变化中的重要意义，有必要针对人类干预下的城市生态性用地时空和质量演化过程进行系统研究。利用1986、1996、2002年TM影像解译的南京市土地利用数据，研究南京市城生态空间数量增减和质量变化，从经济发展阶段、宏观政策环境和城市扩展规律等方面分析变化的驱动力，揭示政府干预下生态空间的结构和功能演变规律，并提出生态空间保护对策。结果表明：(1）研究期内生态空间面积总体保持平衡，其中绿色空间有所增长，蓝色空间有所下降；(2）生态空间的服务功能下降，景观格局上总体呈现破碎化、人工化趋势；(3）空间分布上，城市扩展前缘的主城区生态空间数量和质量下降严重，而属于城乡交错地区的都市发展区在退耕还林和农业经济结构变化等影响下生态空间数量有所上升，水面及洲滩湿地等高生态服务价值生态空间消失或蚕食，造成生态服务功能下降。研究发现，简单的面积指数难以控制生态空间的服务功能下降，生态空间保护必须依靠政府的多方面干预和调控行为。研究可为政府决策提供科学依据，丰富城市生态安全的空间策略研究内容。 . 长三角地区自20世纪90年代后期以来，大城市向外扩张及郊区城市化作用共同推动城市空间的加速扩展，在政府干预下，生产、生活性用地与生态性用地间表现出复杂的双向流动特征。 鉴于生态性用地在城市生态系统中的服务功能，以及人文因素在解释城市土地利用/土地覆盖变化中的重要意义，有必要针对人类干预下的城市生态性用地时空和质量演化过程进行系统研究。利用1986、1996、2002年TM影像解译的南京市土地利用数据，研究南京市城生态空间数量增减和质量变化，从经济发展阶段、宏观政策环境和城市扩展规律等方面分析变化的驱动力，揭示政府干预下生态空间的结构和功能演变规律，并提出生态空间保护对策。结果表明：(1）研究期内生态空间面积总体保持平衡，其中绿色空间有所增长，蓝色空间有所下降；(2）生态空间的服务功能下降，景观格局上总体呈现破碎化、人工化趋势；(3）空间分布上，城市扩展前缘的主城区生态空间数量和质量下降严重，而属于城乡交错地区的都市发展区在退耕还林和农业经济结构变化等影响下生态空间数量有所上升，水面及洲滩湿地等高生态服务价值生态空间消失或蚕食，造成生态服务功能下降。研究发现，简单的面积指数难以控制生态空间的服务功能下降，生态空间保护必须依靠政府的多方面干预和调控行为。研究可为政府决策提供科学依据，丰富城市生态安全的空间策略研究内容。 |
| [23] | . . |
| [24] | . 中国现有的土地利用分类体系对土地的生态属性考虑不足,导致生态用地分类缺乏统一的标准,生态用地难以得到有效保护。基于此,该文尝试对生态用地分类体系进行初步研究,以期为生态用地的科学管护,国土空间格局的优化和生态文明建设的推进提供科技支撑。在总结借鉴国内外****有关生态用地研究成果的基础上,首先对生态用地概念进行了界定,在剔除《第二次全国土地调查技术规程-土地利用现状分类》中的非生态用地基础上,采用＂逆向递推＂方法将生态用地合并归类：根据生态用地的概念、内涵和划分依据,将剔除非生态用地后的土地利用现状分类中的二级地类归为35个生态用地三级地类;根据人类活动对生态用地影响范围和程度的不同而导致发挥的生态功能强弱的差异,将生态用地三级地类合并归类为14个二级地类;基于＂人类活动-生态用地＂影响反馈机理,将生态用地分为原生生态用地、半人工生态用地和人工生态用地3个一级地类。随后,为使生态用地分类系统在生态用地管理与生态建设实践中发挥应有的作用,将土地利用现状分类与生态用地分类实现了有效衔接。最后,作者建议借鉴国内外对于生态系统服务功能的相关研究,考虑从生态系统服务价值等视角来建立相关定量化的系统科学的生态用地分类体系。 . 中国现有的土地利用分类体系对土地的生态属性考虑不足,导致生态用地分类缺乏统一的标准,生态用地难以得到有效保护。基于此,该文尝试对生态用地分类体系进行初步研究,以期为生态用地的科学管护,国土空间格局的优化和生态文明建设的推进提供科技支撑。在总结借鉴国内外****有关生态用地研究成果的基础上,首先对生态用地概念进行了界定,在剔除《第二次全国土地调查技术规程-土地利用现状分类》中的非生态用地基础上,采用＂逆向递推＂方法将生态用地合并归类：根据生态用地的概念、内涵和划分依据,将剔除非生态用地后的土地利用现状分类中的二级地类归为35个生态用地三级地类;根据人类活动对生态用地影响范围和程度的不同而导致发挥的生态功能强弱的差异,将生态用地三级地类合并归类为14个二级地类;基于＂人类活动-生态用地＂影响反馈机理,将生态用地分为原生生态用地、半人工生态用地和人工生态用地3个一级地类。随后,为使生态用地分类系统在生态用地管理与生态建设实践中发挥应有的作用,将土地利用现状分类与生态用地分类实现了有效衔接。最后,作者建议借鉴国内外对于生态系统服务功能的相关研究,考虑从生态系统服务价值等视角来建立相关定量化的系统科学的生态用地分类体系。 |
| [25] | . <p>基于城市发展特点与绿色空间规划将北京市平原区分成核心城区、第一道绿色隔离带、城市扩展区、第二道绿色隔离带与边缘集团5个圈层。利用多时相遥感影像解译了土地利用及NDVI指数，并在此基础上核算了北京不同圈层1999与2007年的生态服务价值。结果表明：核心城区及第一道绿色隔离带的生态服务价值总量从1999—2007年有所提高，但平原区整体有大幅降低；从城市扩展区向外，耕地与果园地的生态服务价值在整个绿色空间所占比例逐渐升高；北京市平原区生态服务价值减少的58.8%是由于土地利用方式的改变，主要是建设用地侵占农用地与林地；41.2%的减少是由于景观退化，其中主要是农田景观退化，尤其在边缘集团区。在现有土地资源稀缺与城市建设用地扩张压力逐渐增大的情况下，将优质农田纳入绿色空间建设，增强其景观质量与生态服务功能，是提高北京市绿色空间整体生态服务功能的有效途径。</p> . <p>基于城市发展特点与绿色空间规划将北京市平原区分成核心城区、第一道绿色隔离带、城市扩展区、第二道绿色隔离带与边缘集团5个圈层。利用多时相遥感影像解译了土地利用及NDVI指数，并在此基础上核算了北京不同圈层1999与2007年的生态服务价值。结果表明：核心城区及第一道绿色隔离带的生态服务价值总量从1999—2007年有所提高，但平原区整体有大幅降低；从城市扩展区向外，耕地与果园地的生态服务价值在整个绿色空间所占比例逐渐升高；北京市平原区生态服务价值减少的58.8%是由于土地利用方式的改变，主要是建设用地侵占农用地与林地；41.2%的减少是由于景观退化，其中主要是农田景观退化，尤其在边缘集团区。在现有土地资源稀缺与城市建设用地扩张压力逐渐增大的情况下，将优质农田纳入绿色空间建设，增强其景观质量与生态服务功能，是提高北京市绿色空间整体生态服务功能的有效途径。</p> |
| [26] | |
| [27] | . 长期以来,城市生态空间规划的编制和实施管理,由于对城市生态用地概念的界定模糊,理论学界对其内涵难以整合、城市规划管理缺乏对城市生态用地规划编制、审批、实施管理的有效措施,导致我国目前生态空间日益受到威胁,生态环境极其脆弱的态势。2012年实施的新的城市用地分类,突出了土地的生态价值,但却仍未明确生态用地类型。基于此,并在对天津市生态现状调查的基础之上,运用LUCC（土地利用土地覆被）土地分类法,ANDERSON（基于遥感数据的土地利用/地表覆盖分类系统）分类法,CORINE（欧盟环境信息协调）分类法等土地分类方法,结合天津市的生态系统,生态空间布局和土地生态功能,研究出适用于规划设计、编制、实施管理的生态用地分类方法,便于城市生态红线规划管理的操作。 . 长期以来,城市生态空间规划的编制和实施管理,由于对城市生态用地概念的界定模糊,理论学界对其内涵难以整合、城市规划管理缺乏对城市生态用地规划编制、审批、实施管理的有效措施,导致我国目前生态空间日益受到威胁,生态环境极其脆弱的态势。2012年实施的新的城市用地分类,突出了土地的生态价值,但却仍未明确生态用地类型。基于此,并在对天津市生态现状调查的基础之上,运用LUCC（土地利用土地覆被）土地分类法,ANDERSON（基于遥感数据的土地利用/地表覆盖分类系统）分类法,CORINE（欧盟环境信息协调）分类法等土地分类方法,结合天津市的生态系统,生态空间布局和土地生态功能,研究出适用于规划设计、编制、实施管理的生态用地分类方法,便于城市生态红线规划管理的操作。 |
| [28] | . 城市生态用地的规划布局是城市规划的难点之一,也是急待解决的问题.本文根据城市生态系统的特点,给出了城市生态用地定义,指出城市生态用地同时具有自然属性和社会属性,依据这个特点,将城市生态用地划分为服务型生态用地和功能型生态用地两大类型,并结合具体的城市生态规划对各种类型的生态用地规划进行了定性分析. . 城市生态用地的规划布局是城市规划的难点之一,也是急待解决的问题.本文根据城市生态系统的特点,给出了城市生态用地定义,指出城市生态用地同时具有自然属性和社会属性,依据这个特点,将城市生态用地划分为服务型生态用地和功能型生态用地两大类型,并结合具体的城市生态规划对各种类型的生态用地规划进行了定性分析. |
| [29] | . 以北京市为例，在全面探讨生态用地内涵的基础上，综合运用GIS技术和景观格局理论，分析生态用地空间的演变规律，通过对生态用地的生态服务功能、景观空间结构和生态敏感性的全面分析，构建生态用地空间重要性的评价模型，并以重要生态用地空间为刚性框架，分别按照保留城市面积40%，50%，60%作为重点生态用地的情景，提出北京市城市生态用地空间的布局模式。结果表明：基于保护重点生态用地的城镇发展格局，既能够不以牺牲土地利用的经济价值为代价，又能够保障城市基本生态系统服务及其安全格局，是实现“效率”与“安全”双赢的良性空间布局。 . 以北京市为例，在全面探讨生态用地内涵的基础上，综合运用GIS技术和景观格局理论，分析生态用地空间的演变规律，通过对生态用地的生态服务功能、景观空间结构和生态敏感性的全面分析，构建生态用地空间重要性的评价模型，并以重要生态用地空间为刚性框架，分别按照保留城市面积40%，50%，60%作为重点生态用地的情景，提出北京市城市生态用地空间的布局模式。结果表明：基于保护重点生态用地的城镇发展格局，既能够不以牺牲土地利用的经济价值为代价，又能够保障城市基本生态系统服务及其安全格局，是实现“效率”与“安全”双赢的良性空间布局。 |
| [30] | . 城市生态用地是城市中重要的自然组分,对维持城市生态系统的持续、稳定和发展有积极作用.在介绍城市生态用地的基础上,将城市生态用地划分为两大类、四个亚类,并阐述了城市生态用地的服务功能,最后以山东聊城市中心城区为例,对城市生态用地的保护利用作了具体分析. . 城市生态用地是城市中重要的自然组分,对维持城市生态系统的持续、稳定和发展有积极作用.在介绍城市生态用地的基础上,将城市生态用地划分为两大类、四个亚类,并阐述了城市生态用地的服务功能,最后以山东聊城市中心城区为例,对城市生态用地的保护利用作了具体分析. |
| [31] | |
| [32] | . The interrelated nature of landscape metrics calls for their joint application in analyzing complicated landscape patterns and associated ecological processes. Using geographic information system, remote-sensing and factor-analysis techniques, the landscape patterns of urban green spaces (UGS) in the compact city of Hong Kong were analyzed for their landscape-ecological quality in different land uses and districts. Using the Fragstat software, some key indices were selected to characterize the landscape mosaic with reference to patch size, patch shape, proximity relationship and edge configuration. Some old districts have smaller and more heterogeneous UGS than newer ones due to relatively low-quality landscape attributes. The landscape patterns of UGS have not improved with old-town renewal and new-town developments. In land uses with less human disturbance, UGS tend to be larger, and more homogeneous to enhance ecosystem services, and are closer to each other with more green cover to enhance connectivity and facilitate movements of organisms and people between proximal patches. Furthermore, vegetation-dominated land uses often have more complicated and hence longer UGS edges than other land uses to augment interfacial benefits. Of the 11 land uses, Government, institution and community and open space have more complicated UGS edges than more human-dominated types. The findings could inform the landscape-pattern design of UGS in compact cities to optimize their ecological qualities and benefits to both nature and residents, and to reinforce urban nature conservation. |
| [33] | . 法学上的生态用地不宜采纳生态 中心的观点,是指为了保障生态安全、维护人类生存和发展所需的生态功能重要的土地。现代法学上的土地不包括水资源在内,决定了法学上生态用地宜作为国土范 畴,才能将生态功能重要的陆地水域纳入其内。耕地的生态条件虽好,但因其实现粮食安全的立法目的决定了不宜纳入生态用地。以实现"粮食换生态"目的的生态 退耕地,因不宜作为耕地决定了应为生态用地。只有那些历史上形成的生态条件恶化、只能保存其现状的未利用土地,才可纳入生态用地的范围。 . 法学上的生态用地不宜采纳生态 中心的观点,是指为了保障生态安全、维护人类生存和发展所需的生态功能重要的土地。现代法学上的土地不包括水资源在内,决定了法学上生态用地宜作为国土范 畴,才能将生态功能重要的陆地水域纳入其内。耕地的生态条件虽好,但因其实现粮食安全的立法目的决定了不宜纳入生态用地。以实现"粮食换生态"目的的生态 退耕地,因不宜作为耕地决定了应为生态用地。只有那些历史上形成的生态条件恶化、只能保存其现状的未利用土地,才可纳入生态用地的范围。 |
| [34] | . 主要针对在生态保护和建设方面用词和理解上存在的差异，着重对其范畴和内涵进行了详细的分析，提出生态保护和建设与环境保护之间既有紧密联系，又有明显差别，宜于分开并列为两个领域。生态保护和建设领域宽广，内涵丰富，不仅要面对各种自然生态系统，也要面对人工生态系统以及多种生态系统复合的景观、区域和全球层次的生态问题。建议在当前情况下可以把“生态保护”和“生态建设”在不同需要的场合分别使用，也可为全面表述而合并使用。 . 主要针对在生态保护和建设方面用词和理解上存在的差异，着重对其范畴和内涵进行了详细的分析，提出生态保护和建设与环境保护之间既有紧密联系，又有明显差别，宜于分开并列为两个领域。生态保护和建设领域宽广，内涵丰富，不仅要面对各种自然生态系统，也要面对人工生态系统以及多种生态系统复合的景观、区域和全球层次的生态问题。建议在当前情况下可以把“生态保护”和“生态建设”在不同需要的场合分别使用，也可为全面表述而合并使用。 |
| [35] | . Ecosystems and landscapes around the world have become increasingly domesticated through urbanization. Cities have been the engines of socioeconomic development but also the centers of major environmental problems since the industrial revolution. Numerous studies have shown that our urban ecosystems and landscapes are on an unsustainable trajectory. Global sustainability depends critically on cities, and urban ecology can and needs to play a key role in the transition toward sustainability. In this paper, I review different definitions and perspectives of urban ecology, discuss major advances and key issues, and propose a framework to help move the field forward. After almost 90 years of development, urban ecology has evolved into a truly transdisciplinary enterprise that integrates ecological, geographical, planning, and social sciences. The most salient thrust of current research activities in the field is the emerging urban sustainability paradigm which focuses on urban ecosystem services and their relations to human well-being. While urbanization is complex in many ways, we do know a lot about its patterns, processes, and effects. More specifically, we know a great deal about urban growth patterns in space and time, the underlying drivers and mechanisms, and myriad effects of urbanization on biodiversity, ecological processes, and ecosystem services. Compared to their ancient counterparts, contemporary cities tend to be bigger in physical size and ecological footprint, faster in growth rate in terms of both population and urbanized land, and more irregular in landscape composition and configuration. As coevolving human-environment systems, cities are spatially heterogeneous, complex adaptive systems. As such, the dynamic trajectory of cities can never be fully predicted or controlled, but can and should be influenced or guided in more desirable directions through planning and design activities that are based on urban ecological knowledge and sustainability principles. |
| [36] | |
| [37] | . Prolonged urbanisation has many negative environmental impacts, such as air pollution, noise, and reduced space for recreation. Urban green spaces counteract those impacts and help to maintain the urban quality of life. Numerous case studies have already documented the beneficial functions of such green spaces. However, comparatively little is known about the dynamics of urban green spaces provisioning across a number of cities. We analysed the development of urban green space provision, urban residential area, population and household number in 202 European cities over a time period beginning in 1990 and ending in 2006. We identified an overall increase in urban green spaces from the year 2000 to the year 2006, while the data reported nearly no change between the year 1990 and the year 2000. This increase was mainly in cities in Western and Southern Europe. In contrast, most of the East European cities experienced a decline accompanied by population shrinkage. In addition, urban residential areas continued to increase regardless of population growth or decline. Based on these data, we conclude that a decrease in population does not automatically lead to a decline in residential areas and a subsequent increase in urban green space on a large scale. On a small-scale, however, demolition, de-sealing of soils and brownfield re-use all represent novel opportunities for the enlargement of urban green spaces in shrinking cities. |
| [38] | . For about five decades since the onset of rapid urbanization and industrialization, Singapore has placed significant emphasis on urban greening as a key component of its development approach, setting the foundation for its development as a “Garden City”. Much of the original forest cover that had been lost due to urbanization and agriculture had been replaced by managed vegetation in the form of urban green spaces. This article assessed the distribution of urban green spaces in Singapore at the aggregate level and between the designated planning areas. It showed a high level of heterogeneity in the distribution of urban green spaces. Increasing population density is a key driver of lower per capita green cover and park provision ratio as reported for other cities. In particular, the park provision ratio had consistently stayed below the planning target for the past decade despite increasing land area dedicated for parks. Comparative assessment of Singapore’s urban green space provision indicates that it is not significantly differentiated from other high-density cities, indicating that the physical distribution of vegetation in the urban fabric is more important than the absolute quantum of vegetation to create a perception of pervasive greenery. Given the downward pressure created by the increasing built-up area and population density, broad strategies are suggested for how Singapore can continue to upkeep its high level of urban greening. |
| [39] | . While the social demand for green spaces is growing, the understanding of local public policies remains scant. The provision of green spaces is subject to market failures, hence they are publicly provided. Yet, the optimal level may not be reached due to government failures. This article highlights potential government failures incurred by the public provision of green spaces. We investigate the median voter hypothesis in a sample of 161 French municipalities. We shall assess various specifications for the provision of green spaces by differentiating operating expenditures and their surfaces. Finally, in order to compare alternative specifications of income and tax price used in the median voter model, we implement tests for non-nested models. The median voter model is weak to explain expenditure levels but is appropriate to explain the ratio of green spaces in the municipalities of the sample. |
| [40] | . 78 The green space coverage in Chinese cities increased steadily from 1991 to 2009. 78 Cities in the same region exhibited long-term similar trends of development. 78 Population, land area and GDP significantly affected green space coverage. 78 Per capita GDP had the highest independent contribution to green space coverage. 78 A linear model to predict variance in green space was constructed. |
| [41] | . The compact city approach has gained global impact as a planning approach for sustainable development in areas with increasing urban population. Through densification and compact building, the approach aims to counteract negative effects of urban sprawl in terms of ineffective land-use and related environmental problems. In spite of its benefits various problems and challenges are associated with implementing the compact city approach. This review looks at the effects of urban densification and compact city development on urban green space and its planning. It identifies problems, challenges and strategies of urban green space planning during densification processes. Findings confirm that urban densification processes, including consolidation and infill development, can pose a threat to urban green space. However, the literature on the compact city approach often lacks specific suggestions for urban green space conservation and planning. Provision of urban green space in compact city environments and during densification processes is described as a major challenge. Loss of private urban green space rarely seems offset by provision of more public green space. Several ways are identified to deal with these challenges, while also highlighting research gaps, e.g., as to how loss of green space quantity can be offset by increased green space quality. |
| [42] | . Remnant urban forests are often popular sites for recreational activities such as hiking, biking and motorised recreation. This can result in the formation of extensive trail networks, fragmenting vegetation into patches separated by modified edge effects and ultimately contributing to the degradation of the ecosystem as a whole. Here we use a GIS approach to assess the extent and diversity of trail-based fragmentation across 17 remnants of endangered urban forest (total area 829ha, Tall Open Blackbutt Forest) in southeast Queensland, Australia. Fourteen different trail types totalling 46.1km were mapped with informal biking and hiking trails the most common (57%, 26.5km). More than 47ha (5.7%) of forest have been lost to trails and their edge effect, nearly equal to the area recently cleared for urban development. The degree of fragmentation in some remnants was in the same order of magnitude as found for some of the most popular nature-based recreation sites in the world. In localised areas, the fragmentation was particularly severe as a result of wide trails used by motorised recreation, but these trails were generally uncommon across the landscape (5%). Spatial regression revealed that the number of access points per remnant was positively correlated with the degree of fragmentation. We encourage more landscape-scale research into trail-based fragmentation due to its capacity to impact extensive areas of endangered ecosystems. Management should seek to minimise the creation of informal trails by hardening popular routes, instigating stakeholder collaboration and centralising visitor flow. |
| [43] | . 61It presents a panel data analysis of public green spaces provision across 285 Chinese cities.61There is a negative relationship between the reliance on land finance and the amount of urban public green spaces.61Land-based urbanization and associated non-budgetary revenues have not financed more public green spaces.61It may lead to a social inequity pertaining to public accessibility to urban green spaces.61Regional variations amongst the eastern-coastal, central, and western cities can be observed. |
| [44] | . Use of urban green space can confer a range of health benefits, but is thought to be quality dependent. Existing methods of quality assessment might not be appropriate for ‘neighbourhood’ green space as there are functional differences between these small sites that tend to serve only local residents and larger sites that people travel to visit. Our aim was to develop a simple tool to characterise quality of neighbourhood green space. The study setting was Stoke-on-Trent, UK. Using an existing measure as a template, the tool was developed through: (i) focus groups (n=35) and piloting; (ii) surveys (n=635) to finalise items and composite domains, and to determine domain weights that reflected their relative importance; and (iii) testing in 28 sites (mean area 3.0±2.0ha) for feasibility and inter-rater reliability using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC). The 36-item Neighbourhood Green Space Tool (NGST) comprised an overall Usage domain and five domains with respective weights: Accessibility 18.0%; Recreational facilities 16.0%; Amenities 22.0%; Natural features 20.0%; and Incivilities 24.0%. Average time for site assessment indicated high feasibility (11.1±3.8min). Reliability was moderate-good for individual domains (ICC=.575–.948, all p<.001) and overall green space quality scores (ICC=.727, p<.001). The NGST demonstrated good feasibility and moderate-good reliability for quality assessment of neighbourhood urban green space. The survey component should be repeated in children and young people to explore differences in preference and subsequent domain weights. Quality should ultimately be validated against level and nature of use. |
| [45] | . . |
| [46] | . . |
| [47] | . . |
| [48] | . Research indicates a relationship between motivation and willingness for conservation of urban green spaces. This study assessed the value of urban green spaces in Jinan using a contingent valuation method and payment card approaches, explored the motives behind payment, and identified the residents' recreational patterns of using urban green spaces. A total of 606 respondents in the 18 70 age groups from different parks and socio-economic groups were interviewed using cluster sampling. About 47% of respondents visited urban green spaces weekly, with 15.2% of respondents scarcely visiting parks. Companions during visits were family members, especially children. Leisure activities and exercising topped the list of activities undertaken in parks. 81.4% of respondents were willing to pay for the conservation of urban green spaces, and trust in the government was the most important factor that led to a high protest ratio. The average and median willingness to pay (WTP) values were RMB 81.81 per year and 50.0 per year, respectively, which were higher than actual park entrance fees. A Logistic regression analysis indicated that WTP value was linked to monthly income and frequency of visits. And the results suggested that individual resident intention to pay was mainly based on existence value, and supplemented by option value and bequest value. These results could assist planning and conservation of urban green spaces, and provide motivation for further research in these areas. |
| [49] | . 61We apply Life Satisfaction Approach to identify the economic value of green spaces around residences in Japan.61We show how the marginal willingness-to-pays (MWTPs) for green spaces differ in terms of its coverage and distance.61We also show how the MWTPs differ in terms of people's preference for greenery |
| [50] | . |
| [51] | . The implication of land-use managers and the local community in matters relating to peri-urban green spaces has been modified by the growing importance of the values attached to such areas. This paper uses means-end chain techniques to examine whether green space users reflect their own personal values through the benefits and attributes they perceive in this type of good. The results show key factors to be opportunities for sport and recreational activities, improvement of physical and mental well-being and enjoyment of landscape beauty. Other values, both individual (personal enjoyment and quality of life) and social (respect for others and a clearer conscience) also emerge. Further analysis to determine whether values differ according to whether or not the visitor assigns a monetary value to the green space showed higher environmental and social awareness to be associated with higher willingness to pay for peri-urban green space. Thus, the greater the perceived environmental values and the higher their subsequent monetary valuation, the more effective environmental protection and conservation policies are likely to be. These results may be worth consideration by land-use managers engaged in environmental cost benefit analysis |
| [52] | . The behavior of citizens in natural areas is the result of a very complex psychological process in which various psychological, social and environmental factors all play their parts. The influence of the psychological factors, as well as the personal benefits received during the stay in the area concerned, as well as place attachment, have received theoretical consideration, but the empirical evidence is limited in the environmental field. This paper explores the direct and indirect role of the receiving of benefits in predicting the attachment of visitors and the subsequent development of their WTP and loyalty. In general terms the results of the structural model show that the received benefits, and affective and functional links determine WTP intentions with regard to conservation and the loyalty of visitors in two suburban natural areas. In conclusion, the management implications of the study are discussed. |
| [53] | . Over the last few decades, especially in urban areas, there has been a revival of the notion of quality of life in connection with periurban green spaces, the presence of which is thought to improve emotional well-being. This paper aims to determine how far the monetary valuation of this environmental resource is influenced by aspects relating to users emotional experience and satisfaction. The contingent valuation method is used to estimate monetary valuation and structural equation models allow examination of the relationships between visitor attitude and behaviour variables. The study focuses on two periurban green spaces in Spain and the data are obtained by means of face-to-face, in situ surveys of visitors. The findings support the relationship between visitor attitudes and the monetary valuation of this environmental good, revealing the need to advance further in exploring the potential of such natural resources to enhance urban social well-being. |
| [54] | . Coastal ecosystems are increasingly faced with human impacts. To better understand these changing conditions, biophysical and economic values of nature have been used to prioritize spatial planning efforts and ecosystem-based management of human activities. Less is known, however, about how to characterize and represent non-material values in decision-making. We collected on-site and mailback survey data (n = 209), and analyzed these data using the Social Values for Ecosystem Services (SolVES) GIS application to incorporate measures of social value and natural resource conditions on Hinchinbrook Island National Park, Australia. Our objectives in this paper are to: 1) determine the spatial distribution and point density of social values for ecosystem services; 2) examine the relationship between social values and natural resource conditions; and 3) compare social value allocations between two subgroups of outdoor recreationists. Results suggest that high priority areas exist on Hinchinbrook's land and seascapes according to the multiple values assigned to places by outdoor recreationists engaged in consumptive (e.g., fishing) and non-consumptive (e.g., hiking) activities. We examine statistically significant spatial clustering across two subgroups of the survey population for three value types that reflect Recreation, Biological Diversity, and Aesthetic qualities. The relationship between the relative importance of social values for ecosystem services and spatially-defined ecological data is explored to guide management decision-making in the context of an island national park setting. |
| [55] | . Abstract Urban green spaces provide important recreational services for urban residents. In general, when park visitors enjoy "the green," they are in actuality appreciating a mix of biotic, abiotic, and man-made park infrastructure elements and qualities. We argue that these three dimensions of structural diversity have an influence on how people use and value urban parks. We present a straightforward approach for assessing urban parks that combines multi-dimensional landscape mapping and questionnaire surveys. We discuss the method as well the results from its application to differently sized parks in Berlin and Salzburg. |
| [56] | . 生态游憩空间建设是城市建设的重要内容,提升休闲价值是城市生态游憩空间建设的重要任务。在常熟市具有突出城市生态游憩服务功能的林地、草地、水域区选择可比性观测廊道,在对游客自发性休闲游憩行为进行动态观测的基础上对各生态游憩空间的休闲价值进行动态对比。结果表明:1全年水域的休闲价值最显著,其次依次是草地、林地。2全年各生态游憩空间休闲价值的时间分布不均衡,且有一定互补性。3林地对于老年人的休闲价值最突出,而中年人更偏好水域休闲,青年及少儿更偏好草地休闲。4在城市生态游憩空间建设中可根据各年龄段人群分布确定生态游憩空间配置方案;根据各生态游憩空间休闲价值差异及其时间变化配置相应休憩设施,并对生态游憩空间实施动态管理;根据影响因素提升各生态游憩空间休闲价值等。 . 生态游憩空间建设是城市建设的重要内容,提升休闲价值是城市生态游憩空间建设的重要任务。在常熟市具有突出城市生态游憩服务功能的林地、草地、水域区选择可比性观测廊道,在对游客自发性休闲游憩行为进行动态观测的基础上对各生态游憩空间的休闲价值进行动态对比。结果表明:1全年水域的休闲价值最显著,其次依次是草地、林地。2全年各生态游憩空间休闲价值的时间分布不均衡,且有一定互补性。3林地对于老年人的休闲价值最突出,而中年人更偏好水域休闲,青年及少儿更偏好草地休闲。4在城市生态游憩空间建设中可根据各年龄段人群分布确定生态游憩空间配置方案;根据各生态游憩空间休闲价值差异及其时间变化配置相应休憩设施,并对生态游憩空间实施动态管理;根据影响因素提升各生态游憩空间休闲价值等。 |
| [57] | . We investigate the effect of urban land use on residential well-being in major German cities, using panel data from the German Socio-Economic Panel and cross-section data from the European Urban Atlas. We reduce concerns about endogeneity by employing fixed-effects (within) estimators, with individual and city of residence fixed effects, while controlling for a rich set of observables. The results show that access to green urban areas, such as gardens and parks, is positively associated with, whereas access to abandoned areas, such as waste or leftover land, is negatively associated with life satisfaction. The effects are strongest for residents who are older, accounting for up to a third of the size of the effect of being unemployed on life satisfaction. We calculate the marginal willingness-to-pay of residents in order to have access to green urban and abandoned areas in their surroundings, as well as the life-satisfaction maximising amounts of them. Finally, we provide a policy case study, while discussing limitations and avenues for future research. |
| [58] | . |
| [59] | . Recently, new perspectives upon healthy urban open spaces propose that open spaces can be regarded as urban green or blue spaces. However, there has so far been very little research into blue environments and their benefits for mental well-being. Our article focuses on the effects of water in cities, “urban blue” (as compared to “urban green”), on human health and well-being. To assess the mental well-being of visitors, we conducted qualitative semi-standardised interviews (n=113), asking which differences in well-being occur when visiting urban green and blue spaces in high-density areas of the inner city in Dusseldorf and Cologne, Germany. Although we found many similarities, some health-enhancing effects for users turned out to be prominent for urban blue in the four conceptual therapeutic landscape dimensions: experienced, symbolic, social and activity space. These effects include enhanced contemplation, emotional bonding, participation, and physical activity. The results suggest that urban blue as a health-promoting factor needs more detailed and accurate determination and examination of its general and local health-enhancing effects. |
| [60] | . We examine the relationship between atmospheric pollution, measured as sulphur dioxide emissions, environmental disasters, traffic congestion, access to parkland and well-being in urban China, using a large survey administered across 30 cities in 2003. We find that in cities with high levels of atmospheric pollution, environmental disasters and traffic congestion Chinese citizens report significantly lower levels of well-being ceteris paribus while in cities with greater access to parkland Chinese citizens report significantly higher levels of well-being ceteris paribus. |
| [61] | . 61Older adults have distinct therapeutic relationships with landscapes.61Nature can promote the physical, mental, and social health of older adults.61Blue space in particular embodies important therapeutic qualities for older adults.61Safety, accessibility, and perception affect the therapeutic impact of landscapes. |
| [62] | . 61We investigate association between green space, mental health and physical activity.61We focussed upon adults in middle-to-older age in Australia.61Psychological distress was less common among adults in greener areas.61Physically inactive adults did not appear to benefit from more green space.61Mental health benefits of green space for older adults depend on active lifestyles. |
| [63] | . Natural environments, or reen spaces鈥, have been associated with a wide range of health benefits. Gender differences in neighbourhood effects on health have been found in a number of studies, although these have not been explored in relation to green space. We conducted the first UK-wide study of the relationship between urban green space and health, and the first such study to investigate gender differences in this relationship. An ecological approach was used. Two land use datasets were used to create a proportional green space measure (% by area) at the UK Census Area Statistic ward scale. Our sample consisted of 6432 urban wards, with a total population of 28.6 million adults aged 16 64 years in 2001. We selected health outcomes that were plausibly related to green space (cardiovascular disease mortality, respiratory disease mortality and self-reported limiting long-term illness) and another that was expected to be unrelated (lung cancer mortality). Negative binomial regression models examined associations between urban green space and these health outcomes, after controlling for relevant confounders. Gender differences in these associations were observed and tested. Male cardiovascular disease and respiratory disease mortality rates decreased with increasing green space, but no significant associations were found for women. No protective associations were observed between green space and lung cancer mortality or self-reported limiting long-term illness for either men or women. Possible explanations for the observed gender differences in the green space and health relationship are gender differences in perceptions and usage of urban green spaces. We conclude that it is important not to assume uniform health benefits of urban green space for all population subgroups. Additionally, urban green space measures that capture quality as well as quantity could be more suited to studying green space and health relationships for women. |
| [64] | . |
| [65] | . 78 No available evidence on pregnancy-green exposure link. 78 Beneficial effect of green exposure on birth weight in lower socioeconomic group. 78 No beneficial effect of green exposure on gestational age at delivery. 78 Socioeconomic status is an effect modifier for the birth weight-green exposure link. |
| [66] | . This study explored whether social contacts are an underlying mechanism behind the relationship between green space and health. We measured social contacts and health in 10,089 residents of the Netherlands and calculated the percentage of green within 1 and a 3 km radius around the postal code coordinates for each individual's address. After adjustment for socio-economic and demographic characteristics, less green space in people's living environment coincided with feelings of loneliness and with perceived shortage of social support. Loneliness and perceived shortage of social support partly mediated the relation between green space and health. |
| [67] | . |
| [68] | . A growing body of research suggests that natural settings are more effective in providing restoration from depleted emotional and cognitive resources than built settings. However, there is a lack of evidence-based guidelines on which options for urban green space design and management are most effective in providing restoration. To address this need, the present study examined the restorative impacts of urban public spaces differing in naturalness. After having been pre-stressed by watching a scary movie, 102 participants were randomly assigned to viewing one of four photo/video presentations depicting an urban street, parkland, tended woodland, or wild woods. Self-reported mood and restorative state were measured at baseline, after the stressor and after viewing the environment. After controlling for stress reactivity, participants in the natural conditions showed stronger recovery on all dependent measures than those in the urban street condition. Differences in recovery among the natural settings did not reach significance. Keyword analysis revealed that the wild woods were described as more arousing than the parkland and tended woodland. There was substantial variation in recovery of vitality within natural conditions, which was related to perceptions of naturalness. In general, the findings suggest that restoration in urban public spaces depends on individual perceptions and needs as well as physical characteristics of the setting. |
| [69] | . The literature on human experience in green environments had widely showed the positive outcomes of getting in contact with nature. This study addresses the issue of whether urban residents鈥 evaluations of urban and peri-urban natural settings and the positive outcomes deriving from contact with such settings vary as a function of their biodiversity. A field study assessed benefits and subjective well-being reported by urban residents visiting four different typologies of green spaces, selected on the basis of urban forestry expert criteria according to a 2 2 factorial design. The biodiversity level (low vs. high) was crossed with the setting location (urban vs. peri-urban) as follows: urban squares with green elements, urban parks, pinewood forest plantations, and peri-urban natural protected areas. A questionnaire including measures of length and frequency of visits, perceived restorativeness, and self-reported benefits of the visit to the green spaces was administered in situ to 569 residents of four Italian medium-to-large size cities: Bari, Florence, Rome and Padua. Results showed the positive role of biodiversity upon perceived restorative properties and self-reported benefits for urban and peri-urban green spaces. Consistently with the hypotheses reported herein, a mediation role of perceived restorativeness in the relation between experience of natural settings (i.e. higher level of biodiversity) and self-reported benefits was found. The design and management implications of the findings are discussed. |
| [70] | . Urban green space in dense city areas is a limited resource. However, previous research indicates that such areas have a positive influence on mental restoration. As stress is a common problem in cities, we test to see whether park characteristics are associated with the perceived restorativeness of nine small public urban green spaces (SPUGS) in the dense city of Copenhagen. Furthermore, we investigate whether there is a difference in preferences for park characteristics amongst average users and the most stressed users of SPUGS. We conducted an on-site questionnaire survey where respondents answered the perceived restorativeness scale (PRS). All SPUGS were analysed using the eight perceived sensory dimensions (PSDs) which describe different park characteristics. The analyses were conducted to see whether the PSDs were present or not and to determine how strong or weak they were. For the first time the PRS and the PSDs have been combined to see whether significant associations can be found between park characteristics and the users’ perceived restorativeness. First, seven of the eight PSDs could be used in the study. Second, the PSDs ‘social’ and ‘serene’ were significantly associated with average users’ perceived restorativeness. And third, a difference between the users is that the PSD ‘nature’ becomes important for the most stressed individuals. The results indicate that the PSDs can be useful for the future analysis and design processes of SPUGS with the potential for mental restoration. However, the PSDs need to be developed further to make them useful to practitioners. |
| [71] | . 绿带是阻止城市蔓延、提高城市生态安全格局的重要手段,其游憩开发能够为大都市游憩空间紧缺提供有效的解决途径。以北京市第二道绿带为研究区,以2013年绿带内6种类型游憩空间(共448处)为研究对象,运用Kernel核密度算法等空间分析方法,从北京市绿带游憩空间的整体分布格局、规模容量特征和各类型游憩空间分布特征及成因三个层面进行分析。主要结论:1从整体分布格局来看,北京市绿带内形成了若干游憩空间集聚区域,游憩空间结构出现"北密南疏"的整体特征;北部游憩空间集聚程度高且分布连续成带,南部游憩空间集聚程度较低且分布离散成团;北部温榆河沿岸地区游憩空间大量集聚,成为绿带游憩空间结构的主要骨架。2从规模容量特征来看,占地规模较大的游憩空间呈集聚分布,规模较小的游憩空间呈分散分布,绿带内已形成了6个由面积规模较大的游憩空间密集分布构成的热点区。3绿带内6种类型游憩空间分布特征及成因表现为:绿带内的资源环境本底决定了既有吸引物游憩空间的空间特征;政策性规划引导郊野休闲公园空间分布相对均匀;重要水系与运动健身游憩空间的空间分布高度关联;主题活动游憩空间更倾向于靠近主要交通干道;会议度假游憩空间与北京市地热资源分布契合度高;民俗体验游憩空间大量分布在海淀区上庄水库周边。揭示了北京市绿带游憩空间布局情况,为中国绿带游憩体系的统筹建设、空间结构调整和布局优化提供了参考。 . 绿带是阻止城市蔓延、提高城市生态安全格局的重要手段,其游憩开发能够为大都市游憩空间紧缺提供有效的解决途径。以北京市第二道绿带为研究区,以2013年绿带内6种类型游憩空间(共448处)为研究对象,运用Kernel核密度算法等空间分析方法,从北京市绿带游憩空间的整体分布格局、规模容量特征和各类型游憩空间分布特征及成因三个层面进行分析。主要结论:1从整体分布格局来看,北京市绿带内形成了若干游憩空间集聚区域,游憩空间结构出现"北密南疏"的整体特征;北部游憩空间集聚程度高且分布连续成带,南部游憩空间集聚程度较低且分布离散成团;北部温榆河沿岸地区游憩空间大量集聚,成为绿带游憩空间结构的主要骨架。2从规模容量特征来看,占地规模较大的游憩空间呈集聚分布,规模较小的游憩空间呈分散分布,绿带内已形成了6个由面积规模较大的游憩空间密集分布构成的热点区。3绿带内6种类型游憩空间分布特征及成因表现为:绿带内的资源环境本底决定了既有吸引物游憩空间的空间特征;政策性规划引导郊野休闲公园空间分布相对均匀;重要水系与运动健身游憩空间的空间分布高度关联;主题活动游憩空间更倾向于靠近主要交通干道;会议度假游憩空间与北京市地热资源分布契合度高;民俗体验游憩空间大量分布在海淀区上庄水库周边。揭示了北京市绿带游憩空间布局情况,为中国绿带游憩体系的统筹建设、空间结构调整和布局优化提供了参考。 |
| [72] | . |
| [73] | . <p>城市公园绿地是城市重要的生态功能景观,其空间分布的合理性对生态环境的改善及人们的日常生活质量都有一定影响.在城市基础设施配置供需平衡理念的背景下,本文基于城市公园绿地空间公平性评价的理论框架,采用一种基于重力模型的评价方法,以公园绿地的服务能力和各居住区人口数目分别度量供给能力和需求水平.以深圳市福田区为研究区,使用GIS网络分析技术和层次分析法,并在评价中考虑“边界效应”,从居住区的视角对深圳市福田区不同等级的公园绿地分布的空间公平性进行定量评价,进而提出了公园绿地空间配置的优化建议.结果表明: 福田区公园绿地总体公平性较差,其中,社区公园的公平性最差,区域性公园次之,郊野生态公园在部分区域公平性较好;综合各类公园的公平性评价结果,福田区约50%的区域可达到供需平衡,其他区域则均供给不足;福田区的公园绿地系统规划要从绿化率、空间配置及道路交通系统等方面进行改善,重点关注小尺度的公园配置数目,满足社区内的居民日常游憩需求.“边界效应”会对公平性评价结果造成一定影响,位于研究区边缘的居住区可以享受到居住区外的公园绿地服务,同时边界外的居住区也会共享区域内的绿地资源.</p> . <p>城市公园绿地是城市重要的生态功能景观,其空间分布的合理性对生态环境的改善及人们的日常生活质量都有一定影响.在城市基础设施配置供需平衡理念的背景下,本文基于城市公园绿地空间公平性评价的理论框架,采用一种基于重力模型的评价方法,以公园绿地的服务能力和各居住区人口数目分别度量供给能力和需求水平.以深圳市福田区为研究区,使用GIS网络分析技术和层次分析法,并在评价中考虑“边界效应”,从居住区的视角对深圳市福田区不同等级的公园绿地分布的空间公平性进行定量评价,进而提出了公园绿地空间配置的优化建议.结果表明: 福田区公园绿地总体公平性较差,其中,社区公园的公平性最差,区域性公园次之,郊野生态公园在部分区域公平性较好;综合各类公园的公平性评价结果,福田区约50%的区域可达到供需平衡,其他区域则均供给不足;福田区的公园绿地系统规划要从绿化率、空间配置及道路交通系统等方面进行改善,重点关注小尺度的公园配置数目,满足社区内的居民日常游憩需求.“边界效应”会对公平性评价结果造成一定影响,位于研究区边缘的居住区可以享受到居住区外的公园绿地服务,同时边界外的居住区也会共享区域内的绿地资源.</p> |
| [74] | . Access to green spaces is important to physical activities and public health, yet one concern remains as to whether the disparities in green space access exist. This study aimed to (1) introduce an approach to quantify potential spatial accessibility to green spaces in a Geographic Information Systems (GIS) environment; and (2) evaluate the racial/ethnic and socioeconomic disparities in green space access. Urban green spaces ( n = 890) in metropolitan Atlanta, Georgia were collected from the Atlanta Regional Commission. A Gaussian-based two-step floating catchment area method was adapted to assess the spatial accessibility to green spaces at the census tract level. The Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) model and the spatial lag model were used to evaluate the racial/ethnic and socioeconomic disparities. Results suggest that the spatial accessibility to green spaces in Atlanta was not evenly distributed. Both models show that neighborhoods with a higher concentration of African Americans had significantly poorer access to green spaces ( P < 0.05). Asian population had significantly poor access in the OLS model but not in the spatial lag model. Poor access was present in socioeconomically disadvantaged areas as well. Findings can be used for the city and regional planners to target the specific areas for green space development in order to elucidate the disparities. |
| [75] | . 61Shapes and geographic insertion of green spaces as elements for a better environmental justice.61Accessibility and attractiveness of green spaces to identify socio-demographical inequity.61Realistic innovative GIS-based metric method of measurement of green spaces proximity.61Green spaces attractiveness defined and measured by multiple functions. |
| [76] | . Rapid urbanization has caused many environmental impacts associated with the reduction of green space. Having realized the important role of green space in urban ecosystems, many local governments in China have set out a series of policies to introduce green elements into urban areas. Insights into how urban green space changes in response to urbanization and greening policies are essential for guiding sustainable urban development. This paper employed integrated approaches to characterize the changing patterns and intensities of green space in Kunming, China from 1992 to 2009. Spatial variations of green space pattern were derived through concentric and directional landscape analyses integrated with landscape metrics. Change intensities of the two time periods from 1992 to 2000 and from 2000 to 2009 were calculated for the study area as a whole, the concentric belts, and the directional transects to examine the variation of the green space change rate in the city. Results revealed that both rapid urbanization and greening policies accounted for the process of green space change. Among the green space land use types, agriculture land was largely encroached and fragmented by urban sprawl, especially in the outer belts of the city. Forest land was also impacted but encountered a relatively moderate loss rate compared to agriculture land. Conversely, greening policies contributed to the recovery of grass land in the last decade. The study demonstrated the usefulness of the concentric and directional landscape analyses in characterizing the spatial emporal variations of urban green space in cities with a concentric development form. |
| [77] | . 运用空间分析方法，对长江中游城市群森林公园的空间分布及其可达性进行综合分析，并对不同等级森林公园的空间分异进行比较研究。结果表明：（1）长江中游城市群森林公园在空间上表现为聚集分布，且具有“东密西疏”的空间分布格局，国家级和省级森林公园的分布模式分别为随机分布和聚集分布。（2）长江中游城市群森林公园的空间可达性较好，区域内平均可达性时间为38.84 min，且具有明显的交通指向性，省级森林公园的可达性要优于国家级森林公园。（3）基于县级单元的整体可达性在空间上呈聚集格局，森林公园可达性的热点区域分布自东向西表现为热点区、次热区、次冷区和冷点区，省级森林公园可达性与之表现出较强的相似，而国家级森林公园可达性的热点区域分布相对随机。在此基础上提出相应的对策措施，为长江中游城市群森林旅游的发展提供了依据。 . 运用空间分析方法，对长江中游城市群森林公园的空间分布及其可达性进行综合分析，并对不同等级森林公园的空间分异进行比较研究。结果表明：（1）长江中游城市群森林公园在空间上表现为聚集分布，且具有“东密西疏”的空间分布格局，国家级和省级森林公园的分布模式分别为随机分布和聚集分布。（2）长江中游城市群森林公园的空间可达性较好，区域内平均可达性时间为38.84 min，且具有明显的交通指向性，省级森林公园的可达性要优于国家级森林公园。（3）基于县级单元的整体可达性在空间上呈聚集格局，森林公园可达性的热点区域分布自东向西表现为热点区、次热区、次冷区和冷点区，省级森林公园可达性与之表现出较强的相似，而国家级森林公园可达性的热点区域分布相对随机。在此基础上提出相应的对策措施，为长江中游城市群森林旅游的发展提供了依据。 |
| [78] | . For several decades, the sprawling of urbanisation has resulted in the loss of natural habitats and in landscape fragmentation and thus represents one of the main causes of the erosion of biodiversity. Green spaces in urban areas help maintain ecological connectivity and provide ecosystem services to citizens. The impact of urban green spaces on the conservation of biodiversity and their contribution to ecological networks in urban areas have been studied. However, little is known about the area occupied by green spaces at business sites (GSBS) or about their organisation within the urban matrix and their possible contribution to the maintenance of functional connectivity at local and regional scales. This study analysed the evolution in the dynamics and locations of business sites over the past 30 years in the Ile-de-France region. Cartographic data allowed us to identify GSBS which spanned 8700ha and represented 8% of the urban green spaces forming the herbaceous network. Using a graph theoretic modelling approach, we quantified the potential contribution of GSBS to regional connectivity. We demonstrated that GSBS did not add to connectivity in terms of total area but rather through the density of the links that these sites shared with other green spaces or via their strategic position in the network, i.e., their capacity to serve as stepping stones. The contribution of GSBS was greatest in suburban and pericentral sectors, where most business activities have been developed in the past 30 years and land resources remain available for green space development. |
| [79] | . 在快速城镇化的背景下,全球城镇人口不断增加,土地、交通、人居环境等问题使得城乡矛盾日益凸显,城市环境承载力不堪重负。中国正处在城镇化的关键时期,生态环境与城市建设二者间的矛盾是城市发展中不可回避的重要问题,风景园林及城市规划学科有责任承担起解决好城市人居环境及城市生态空间发展的重任。绿地是城市生态安全、人居环境的保障,对城镇绿地系统的研究是解决城市人居环境问题的关键。生态网络思想起源于19世纪,绿地生态网络源于城市绿地系统化、网络化的发展以及绿道等概念的延伸,它被广泛应用于城镇绿地系统规划中,形成绿地生态网络化的规划方法。目前,绿地生态网络概念及规划方法不断发展,已经在许多发达国家的城市和地区被广泛应用实践,并在控制城市无序扩张和解决城镇化问题等方面有效果显著。 本文基于对绿地生态网络的理论和实践研究,对北京绿地体系网络化发展进行战略性探索实践。通过国内外典型城市案例的分析研究,结合生态网络思想,总结提出城镇绿地生态网络的规划方法。以北京市为例,剖析北京绿地生态格局演变与城市形态发展,指出构建绿地生态网络的城镇绿地体系发展新方向,提出北京绿地生态网络预案,该网络方案为正确引导北京城市空间发展,保障北京生态安全,提高北京人居环境质量提供有效途径。希望以此为中国城镇绿地体系发展开辟新的发展方向和思路,引导我国城镇绿地走向整体性、系统性、网络化、高效能化的规划发展模式；为中国城镇绿地生态网络建设研究提供理论框架和实践参考。主要研究内容及成果如下： 首先,本文通过对绿地生态网络进行研究综述,辨析相关概念及理论,界定了绿地生态网络的定义及内涵,并总结其结构及其功能。通过梳理国内外典型城市案例的绿地生态网络演化发展历程,分析其绿地与城市空间形态的关系,提出中国城市绿地建设的问题,并指出未来城镇绿地系统化、网络化的发展方向,总结可借鉴的经验。 其二,对比研究北京生态格局演变的历史与现状,指出北京生态格局现存的主要问题。分析研究北京绿地空间结构,指出现阶段北京绿地规划建设存在的主要问题。论证北京市构建绿地生态网络的可行性与必要性,提出北京理想生态空间格局,以及未来北京绿地体系发展的具体需求。 其三,基于上述研究总结了绿地生态网络的规划方法,并运用该方法重点对北京绿地生态网络中的生态节点、生态廊道、网络模型进行分析确定,提出北京绿地生态网络发展战略方案。在绿地生态网络理论方法的指导下提出对北京绿地生态网络初步初步构想,并运用GIS、FRAGSTATS等技术对网络化后的北京生态空间进行景观格局分析,论证方案的优越性以及该构建方法的合理性。 最后,对未来中国绿地建设发展将面临问题进行了讨论,并对绿地生态网络在城镇绿地中的应用和研究工作进行展望。希望通过本研究,引起社会对城市生态环境的关注,对城市绿地建设的重视,对绿地生态网络规划途径的认识。期待利用绿地生态网络这一绿地体系发展的新型模式使目前的城市生态安全、人居环境问题得到切实有效的解决,最终实现城市可持续发展。 . 在快速城镇化的背景下,全球城镇人口不断增加,土地、交通、人居环境等问题使得城乡矛盾日益凸显,城市环境承载力不堪重负。中国正处在城镇化的关键时期,生态环境与城市建设二者间的矛盾是城市发展中不可回避的重要问题,风景园林及城市规划学科有责任承担起解决好城市人居环境及城市生态空间发展的重任。绿地是城市生态安全、人居环境的保障,对城镇绿地系统的研究是解决城市人居环境问题的关键。生态网络思想起源于19世纪,绿地生态网络源于城市绿地系统化、网络化的发展以及绿道等概念的延伸,它被广泛应用于城镇绿地系统规划中,形成绿地生态网络化的规划方法。目前,绿地生态网络概念及规划方法不断发展,已经在许多发达国家的城市和地区被广泛应用实践,并在控制城市无序扩张和解决城镇化问题等方面有效果显著。 本文基于对绿地生态网络的理论和实践研究,对北京绿地体系网络化发展进行战略性探索实践。通过国内外典型城市案例的分析研究,结合生态网络思想,总结提出城镇绿地生态网络的规划方法。以北京市为例,剖析北京绿地生态格局演变与城市形态发展,指出构建绿地生态网络的城镇绿地体系发展新方向,提出北京绿地生态网络预案,该网络方案为正确引导北京城市空间发展,保障北京生态安全,提高北京人居环境质量提供有效途径。希望以此为中国城镇绿地体系发展开辟新的发展方向和思路,引导我国城镇绿地走向整体性、系统性、网络化、高效能化的规划发展模式；为中国城镇绿地生态网络建设研究提供理论框架和实践参考。主要研究内容及成果如下： 首先,本文通过对绿地生态网络进行研究综述,辨析相关概念及理论,界定了绿地生态网络的定义及内涵,并总结其结构及其功能。通过梳理国内外典型城市案例的绿地生态网络演化发展历程,分析其绿地与城市空间形态的关系,提出中国城市绿地建设的问题,并指出未来城镇绿地系统化、网络化的发展方向,总结可借鉴的经验。 其二,对比研究北京生态格局演变的历史与现状,指出北京生态格局现存的主要问题。分析研究北京绿地空间结构,指出现阶段北京绿地规划建设存在的主要问题。论证北京市构建绿地生态网络的可行性与必要性,提出北京理想生态空间格局,以及未来北京绿地体系发展的具体需求。 其三,基于上述研究总结了绿地生态网络的规划方法,并运用该方法重点对北京绿地生态网络中的生态节点、生态廊道、网络模型进行分析确定,提出北京绿地生态网络发展战略方案。在绿地生态网络理论方法的指导下提出对北京绿地生态网络初步初步构想,并运用GIS、FRAGSTATS等技术对网络化后的北京生态空间进行景观格局分析,论证方案的优越性以及该构建方法的合理性。 最后,对未来中国绿地建设发展将面临问题进行了讨论,并对绿地生态网络在城镇绿地中的应用和研究工作进行展望。希望通过本研究,引起社会对城市生态环境的关注,对城市绿地建设的重视,对绿地生态网络规划途径的认识。期待利用绿地生态网络这一绿地体系发展的新型模式使目前的城市生态安全、人居环境问题得到切实有效的解决,最终实现城市可持续发展。 |
| [80] | . 协调城市扩张与生态敏感区保护之间的矛盾是当前我国新型城镇化建设中的一项重要任务,但基于传统供需平衡模式或历史惯性驱动模拟的城市规划布局可能导致一系列潜在的生态环境问题。根据城市发展具有历史惯性驱动和空间规划引导的双重特性,提出将地理模拟与优化(Geographical Simulation and Optimization Systems,简写为GeoSOS)等复杂GIS空间分析技术引入规划决策分析。通过利用最小累积阻力模型获取生态敏感区保护压力格局,并利用元胞自动机模型进行城市扩张模拟,分析城市惯性扩张模式对生态敏感区的潜在影响;然后根据生态敏感区保护和城市空间扩张的协调性发展目标进行生态适宜性评价,进而利用蚁群智能空间优化配置模型产生一种优化的城市空间布局方案。研究以我国珠江三角洲地区的广州市为案例,详细分析了基于GeoSOS的城市扩张与生态保护的协调决策过程。结果表明,整合了城市发展惯性与生态敏感区保护双重目标的空间优化布局方案,比单纯基于地理模拟进行规划布局更符合生态型城市建设需求,研究所提出的城市与生态二元空间协调分析框架可为城市规划提供可靠的定量决策支撑。 . 协调城市扩张与生态敏感区保护之间的矛盾是当前我国新型城镇化建设中的一项重要任务,但基于传统供需平衡模式或历史惯性驱动模拟的城市规划布局可能导致一系列潜在的生态环境问题。根据城市发展具有历史惯性驱动和空间规划引导的双重特性,提出将地理模拟与优化(Geographical Simulation and Optimization Systems,简写为GeoSOS)等复杂GIS空间分析技术引入规划决策分析。通过利用最小累积阻力模型获取生态敏感区保护压力格局,并利用元胞自动机模型进行城市扩张模拟,分析城市惯性扩张模式对生态敏感区的潜在影响;然后根据生态敏感区保护和城市空间扩张的协调性发展目标进行生态适宜性评价,进而利用蚁群智能空间优化配置模型产生一种优化的城市空间布局方案。研究以我国珠江三角洲地区的广州市为案例,详细分析了基于GeoSOS的城市扩张与生态保护的协调决策过程。结果表明,整合了城市发展惯性与生态敏感区保护双重目标的空间优化布局方案,比单纯基于地理模拟进行规划布局更符合生态型城市建设需求,研究所提出的城市与生态二元空间协调分析框架可为城市规划提供可靠的定量决策支撑。 |
| [81] | . 城乡生态空间是维护城乡生态安全和保障城乡可持续发展的重要区域，在快速城市化背景下，城乡生态环境受到巨大威胁，如何做到一方面促进城乡社会进步、经济发展；另一方面又要保护好生态环境，维护城乡生态安全格局，是新时期城乡规划所关注的热点，借鉴国内外城乡生态保护与利用的经验，以长株潭绿心为例，从城乡生态空间的识别与重构、保护与利用、推进机制等方面对城乡生态空间规划进行探索，解决了绿心地区城镇发展空间格局、农村发展空间格局、自然生态安全格局和设施生态空间格局的重构问题，兼顾了“保护”与“发展”的平衡点，以期对类似地区城乡生态空间保护与建设起到一定的指导和借鉴作用。 . 城乡生态空间是维护城乡生态安全和保障城乡可持续发展的重要区域，在快速城市化背景下，城乡生态环境受到巨大威胁，如何做到一方面促进城乡社会进步、经济发展；另一方面又要保护好生态环境，维护城乡生态安全格局，是新时期城乡规划所关注的热点，借鉴国内外城乡生态保护与利用的经验，以长株潭绿心为例，从城乡生态空间的识别与重构、保护与利用、推进机制等方面对城乡生态空间规划进行探索，解决了绿心地区城镇发展空间格局、农村发展空间格局、自然生态安全格局和设施生态空间格局的重构问题，兼顾了“保护”与“发展”的平衡点，以期对类似地区城乡生态空间保护与建设起到一定的指导和借鉴作用。 |
| [82] | . 绿道网的建设对于促进生态廊道的形成、物种多样性的保护以及引领 绿色交通出行与低碳健康的生活方式具有重要意义.在分析现状问题和借鉴国外经验的基础上,珠三角区域绿道网规划运用生态学原理,重视生态资源的搜集与科学 分析的前期准备,制定生态系统优良的规划目标及相关评价指标,以生态保育为前提确定绿道网的选线布局,将绿道在空间上分为绿道控制区与绿化缓冲区,并加以 引导控制.随着生态理念的深入,绿道规划逐渐成为建设资源节约型、环境友好型社会的重要战略手段. . 绿道网的建设对于促进生态廊道的形成、物种多样性的保护以及引领 绿色交通出行与低碳健康的生活方式具有重要意义.在分析现状问题和借鉴国外经验的基础上,珠三角区域绿道网规划运用生态学原理,重视生态资源的搜集与科学 分析的前期准备,制定生态系统优良的规划目标及相关评价指标,以生态保育为前提确定绿道网的选线布局,将绿道在空间上分为绿道控制区与绿化缓冲区,并加以 引导控制.随着生态理念的深入,绿道规划逐渐成为建设资源节约型、环境友好型社会的重要战略手段. |
| [83] | . Legacy cities are increasingly including green land uses in their master plans. Therefore, it is important for city planners and policy makers to understand the factors that influence the attractiveness of green spaces. The purpose of this study was to empirically compare the perceived attractiveness of community gardens against that of vacant lots in each of four seasons, as well as to determine the features of community gardens that contribute to their attractiveness. The findings revealed that community gardens were perceived as more attractive than vacant lots and that the level of perceived attractiveness varied by season. More importantly, regardless of season or physical features, the level of maintenance of a green space was shown to have the largest influence on its attractiveness. The author concludes that, rather than create design guidelines for green land uses, city planners and policy makers may find it more effective to implement maintenance standards and proactive code enforcement. |
| [84] | . The provision of services related to green-space maintenance, such as grass cutting, tree pruning, litter collection, or weed control, is an integrated part of urban green-space management. Since contracting out has become common practice in urban green-space management, it is now a key challenge to develop well-functioning frameworks for managing the provision of outsourced green-space maintenance. With the public sector reform of the New Public Management, an emphasis on the four tenets of specification, pricing, monitoring, and enforcement of service provisions is now pervasive in the ‘standard framework’ for contract design and management. Based on an action research intervention, this paper puts forward an ‘extended’ framework for the design and management of green-space maintenance contracts that can help managers of urban green space to devise contract designs and management practices better adapted for green-space maintenance. The action research intervention took place as a part of efforts by the Danish Palaces and Properties Agency to improve green-space maintenance contracting in historic parks and gardens by implementing a performance management scheme. In addition to assessing the merits of the performance management scheme, the paper focuses on a new set of tenets related to the role of coordination, communication, motivation, and restraint of power. |
| [85] | . |
| [86] | . |
| [87] | . 社会科学的“空间转向”、新社会运动的发展以及多个学科不同路径的研究共同开启和推动了关于“空间正义”的思考。在众多****研究的基础上，本文从空间和正义两个角度对“空间正义”概念进行了阐释。“空间正义”不仅是正义在空间的表现，而且植根于空间和空间生产的过程，受空间所强化的支配和压制的影响。为使其更具政策意义，本文较为详尽地分析了“空间正义”的具体内涵，．“空间正义”不仅丰富了正义理论，推动了消除空间不公的社会行动，并且为许多相关社会议题提供了新的理论解释，更重要的是它对认识和解决中国城市问题有着很强的现实意义。 . 社会科学的“空间转向”、新社会运动的发展以及多个学科不同路径的研究共同开启和推动了关于“空间正义”的思考。在众多****研究的基础上，本文从空间和正义两个角度对“空间正义”概念进行了阐释。“空间正义”不仅是正义在空间的表现，而且植根于空间和空间生产的过程，受空间所强化的支配和压制的影响。为使其更具政策意义，本文较为详尽地分析了“空间正义”的具体内涵，．“空间正义”不仅丰富了正义理论，推动了消除空间不公的社会行动，并且为许多相关社会议题提供了新的理论解释，更重要的是它对认识和解决中国城市问题有着很强的现实意义。 |
| [88] | . This paper advances the concept of a coupled social–ecological system (SES), where human and biophysical systems are closely linked, to examine and explain variations in landscape values perceived by people in their region. In this paper, we describe an approach that allows the mapping of SES by linking survey research with geographic information systems (GIS) to provide spatial representations of social and ecological system convergence. Using survey data that measured landscape values from multiple communities on the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska, we identify geographical areas where both human-perceived and physically measured ecological values overlap and are referred to as social–ecological “hotspots”. Community landscape values, collected as point data, were used to generate point density maps to produce hotspot surfaces for each value. These value surfaces were spatially cross-correlated with other communities’ value surfaces and with an ecological map layer (net primary productivity) to demonstrate social–ecological mapping. Moderate spatial cross-correlation coefficients were found between most landscape values by community with 18 hotspot surfaces pairings exhibiting strong positive spatial cross correlations. Moderately significant, positive linear relationships were found between perceived biological values and net primary productivity for three of six communities. The exploratory spatial analysis presented in this paper is a first step in identifying and describing the presence of SES in a regional context. We conclude the paper by discussing the potential managerial and ecological implications of coupled social–ecological systems including system resilience and vulnerability, and the limitations of the approach that need to be considered. |
| [89] | . |
| [90] | . Studies have pointed at the negative side of urban green spaces in terms of evoking fear of crime. However research on fear-provoking attributes suggests that there usually is no single attribute that influences fear but that rather a combination of attributes prevails. The aim of the paper is to systematically review those attributes that evoke fear of crime in urban green spaces and to highlight their complex interaction by adopting a social-ecological framework. Results include an overview of the reviewed literature with regard to authorship, journal, geographical distribution of the studies, types of urban green spaces studies, types of landscape stimulus used, applied methods, types of respondents involved and main study findings. Forty-eight studies met the authors inclusion criteria. The majority of the studies highlighted that individual factors (such as gender and past experience) were more influential than social and physical factors in evoking fear of crime. A proposed socio-ecological framework highlights the attributes which evoke fear of crime in urban green spaces and its interactions and can help guide future research. |
