关键词:土地利用政策;休养生息;耕地保护;轮作休耕;生态补偿;生态系统;空间;格局 Abstract China has implemented the most stringent cropland protection system in the world with remarkable results. On the background of the new era, the government has initiated a implementation plan for the rehabilitating of cultivated land, grassland, rivers and lakes, as well as the protection and improvement of the "trinity" of the quantity, quality, and ecology of cropland. However, the supporting cropland system is obviously lagging, which seriously affects the promotion of cropland protection. This paper analyzes the realistic pulse of the protection system of cropland from the following aspects: the analysis of the rehabilitation concept, the problems such as the inconsistency of basic data in the system of cultivated land protection in China, the unscientific system of occupation and compensation, and the failure to establish a spatial planning system for cultivated land and the evolution of the protection system of international farm land. We also characterize the institutional mechanism of the transformation of cropland protection from four aspects: the temporal and spatial pattern, the quality, the security, and the incentive mechanism of farm land. It is the time-space pattern of “one line, one belt, three districts, and six spaces,” the quality management of refined farmland, the incentive mechanism of cultivated land security protection, ecological compensation, and ecological cultural cognition based on Living Cropland Index. From the forward-looking vision of ecological integration and cultural development, the framework of the ecological pattern of sustainable development of farm land has been constructed. It has a significant reference to improve the current farm land protection system in China, to adapt to the implementation of practical work, and to promote to the overall goal of ecological civilization-oriented cropland protection system in China.
20世纪20年代美国为解决农产品过剩,由政府出资收购破产农场实施退耕还林。二战之后,美国城镇迅速向周边高价值农业区蔓延。为此,美国非营利性土地保护组织“公共土地信托基金”(TPL: the Trust for Public Land)主导的“绿图战略计划(GSP)”指导耕地保护和城镇增长计划,立足绿色足迹,强调耕地生态系统的完整性和连接度,制定城镇外围的农村保护区(rural preserve)以及农村保留区(rural reserve)两个不同的量化考核保护制度[46]。1956年,开始实行土地银行项目,农民可短期或长期地将未利用耕地存入土地银行,银行按照相应的农产品市场价格分配给农民,以用于保护耕地生态环境的成本。美国土壤局于1981年提出基于土地评价与立地评估的(LESA)[43,44]计划,用于确定农用地保护和休耕的范围。美国国会于1985年通过了《食品安全和安全法》[59],并于次年开始实施全国范围内10至15年的耕地生态修复项目。美国联邦政府还通过制定保育贮备计划(CRP)和保护方法伙伴关系(CMP: Conservation Measure Partnership)制订出实施耕地保护的开放标准(Open Standards for the Practice of Conservation),提出一个五环闭环管理方法并且配置相应可转移的权益:即项目概念设计—规划行动和监控—执行和监控—数据应用和自适应管理—反馈和总结学习[45],然后通过“政府考核+第三方评估机构+农场主自愿申请”的模式,市场化运作[60],具体内容属于农田退耕或临时性休耕的范畴。 欧盟耕地保护计划始于1988年,1992年实行麦克萨里改革[61],以形式相对灵活多变,措施精准为特点,其制定的“考核奖罚+补贴”的休耕轮作制度[61,62],对休耕规模和质量达到要求的农场进行直接补贴,对生态绿色种植生产的农场提供各种奖励补贴,对不遵守规定的采取惩罚措施[63,64]。欧盟每个会员国确定本国最低良好耕作实践水平(GFP: Good Farming Practice)[48],根据GFP基准水平,按照农民的实际农业产出进行相应比例的奖罚。20世纪90年代初,瑞士实施了旨在保护和提升耕地生产力的项目,在利用农业区(UAA: the Utilised Agricultural Area)建立生态补偿区域计划(ECA: Ecological Compensation Areas)[49],其采取的休耕措施包括:从谷物生产向草地转换;进行短期绿色休耕;保护森林农田和缓冲区等高生态价值区域;生产非食用可再生资源[52,65]。此项措施对于增加乡村地区的生物多样性,提升景观有积极作用,被多个国家和地区采用推广。 日本的《农地法》、《土地改良法》、《关于农业振兴地域的法律》和《农业经营基础强化促进法》等一系列农村土地进行分类分级保护的法律制度[68],凡参加供给控制计划而实施土地休耕的农户,在使休耕地达到发放补贴标准的前提下,均能获得休耕补贴[57,66]。对于更有效或长期休耕地,补贴更高;对于不配合轮作休耕制度的农民,政府按一定标准收取代偿费,以此增加耕地耕作成本,促使农户休耕[67]。 欧美日耕地保护制度的实施情况证明,欧美的规模农业经济体和东亚小农经济体,其耕地保护政策都具有一定的弹性。从实施主体来看,欧美国家的实施主体职能划分明确,一般由中央政府统筹规划和实施,地方政府和专业技术部门负责具体操作和指导,而大农场主或农户则提出诉求、具体实施及领取补偿,相对容易管理且效率高;日本和中国台湾地区的组织主体较为单一,体现了东亚小农经济特点,管控难度大。但不论其国家和地区的实施背景、目的、法律和机制不同,实施土地休养生息的保护制度的目的都是解决农业经济危机、解决人地系统发展矛盾、解决国际农业市场供给争端与保护农地生态系统。总体可以归纳为“奖罚补多渠道,顶层设计法制化;政策富有弹性,驱动因素多元化”。
5 耕地保护制度的转型
2017年,根据我国部分地区耕地状况堪忧的情况而出台的《中共中央国务院关于加强耕地保护和改进占补平衡的意见》有三个层面的内涵:耕地数量保护重点是考虑保护政策改革的路径依赖;耕地质量与数量结合正如意见中指出旨在“提高粮食综合生产能力,保障国家粮食安全”;耕地保护中的“生态”被强调,耕地保护本身就是保护生态以及强调耕地数量保护不能忽略对生态的负面效应这两个维度。这个意见确定了耕地保护转型发展面临耕地时空、耕地质量、耕地安全和激励机制等四个战略方向(表1)。 Table 1 表1 表1中国耕地保护转型总体框架 Table 1the overall framework of China’s transformation of cropland protection and transformation in China
5.1.1 农业本底生态空间划分 《全国农业可持续发展规划(2015—2030年)》将全国农业区划分成优化发展区、适度发展区、保护发展区三类空间布局(表2)[68],结合胡焕庸线与农牧交错带组成“东田西草”分界(图1),以及根据地理分异规律和水资源分布整理出水田耕作空间、旱田耕作空间、农牧交错耕作空间、游放牧高原耕作空间、山牧季移耕作空间和绿洲农业耕作空间等六大农地空间(表3),这些不同的地理空间和水土资源分布要素叠加成为我国农业生态本底分区“一线一带,三区六空间”格局。管控生态空间、基本耕地空间和城镇空间,管控刚性边界和弹性边界。财政部曾向国务院建议休耕0.13亿hm2,约占全国耕地面积10%[25,69]。还有研究表明,区域虚拟休耕规模约占当地耕地总数的0.84%~8.38%[24]。虽然全国层面的大规模休耕尚未成形,但从试点地区看,全国轮作休耕试点面积已由2016年的41万hm2扩大到2018年的160万hm2,到2020年将达到333万余hm2。可以预见,未来轮作休耕产生的生态效益时空差异也会不断加大,进一步引导各个区域合理配置农业生产资源与环境要素是保障我国农业发展可永续性发展的重要政策抓手[70]。 Table 2 表2 表2农业可持续发展分区情况表[67] Table 2the situation of agricultural sustainable development division in China
分区
区域范围
优化发展区
东北区
黑龙江、吉林、辽宁、内蒙古东部
黄淮海区
北京、天津、河北中南部、河南、山东、安徽、江苏北部
长江中下游区
江西、浙江、上海、江苏南部、安徽中南部、湖北、湖南大部
华南区
福建、广东、海南
适度发展区
西北及长城沿线区
新疆、宁夏、甘肃大部、山西、陕西中北部、内蒙古中西部、河北北部
西南区
广西、贵州、重庆、陕西南部、四川东部、云南大部、湖北、湖南西部
保护发展区
青藏区
西藏、青海、甘肃藏区、四川西部、云南西北部
海洋渔业区
我国管辖海域
新窗口打开 显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT 图1我国农业生态本底分区“一线一带,三区六空间”格局 注:该图基于国家测绘地理信息局标准地图服务网站下载的审图号为GS(2016)1570号的标准地图制作,底图无修改。 -->Figure 1the pattern of “one line and one belt, three districts and six spaces” in the agro-ecological background of China -->
Table 3 表3 表3我国大陆耕地六大类型空间布局 Table 3six spatial layouts of agricultural land in China
新窗口打开 5.1.2 耕地保护时空时序 实施休养生息的耕地保护制度具有现实意义和前瞻性意义。2018年9月,自然资源部关于永久基本农田重大建设项目土地使用预审的通知也说明了空间规划的国标2017定义的耕地。为确保“三区三线”的落实,避免政策灰色地带引发蝴蝶效应。这些都需要把信息建立在空间大数据平台上便于管理运营,便于在制定空间规划的时候,将耕地空间作为复合生态系统(图2[71])纳入最基础、最根本的保护范畴,提前预留出重大建设项目和城镇增长的可建设弹性空间,变粗放管理空间为精细管理空间,优化耕地生态圈层空间。时间上,2020年是土地空间制度转型的重要历史节点,届时自然资源部要编制的空间规划将面临如何对土地资源进行定性、定量、定序的问题,如何遏制城镇无序蔓延和推进耕地休养生息,这都须要对耕地的时空配置进行判断和统筹协调。耕地的时空配置可以从建设用地增量时空配置、农村居民点整理时空配置等研究中获得有益思路,通过集成3S、无人机等空间分析技术,构建休耕轮作耕地时空配置技术体系,实现对轮作休耕地时空配置的时空优化,以达到效益最大化。因此,在2016—2030年,是落实耕地“三位一体”保护的关键,这期间内,国民经济“十四五”建设时期势必成为承上启下的关键时序,是耕地时空格局转型的关键阶段;“十五五”建设之后,耕地的生态功能应上升到第一位[6]。 显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT 图2五位一体的复合生态系统[71] -->Figure 2social-economic-natural complex ecosystem incorporating ecological civilization with economic, political, cultural and social development -->
耕地资源是国家的本底不可再生资源,耕地安全关乎粮食安全和食品安全。基于耕地安全为战略的保护体系迫切需要全面转型和发展。1996年,联合国粮农组织一直致力于提高全球粮食质量水平[75],其提出的五个可持续准则是评价耕地安全的重要原则[51]。以往在耕地生产力方面过度强调,化学农业固然提高了产能,但破坏了耕地生态。休养生息制度的目的是要将耕地的自我生命力维持在健康状态,重视对耕地生命力的保护要上升到耕地安全的层面。这里一方面是设计耕地生命力指数(LCI: Living Cropland Index),用于管控耕地的健康。 另一方面就须要基于食物安全层次性的耕地保护,寻找政府管控与市场运营的合理边界[20]。中央政府应将无公害、绿色、有机耕地划分为永久性基本农田保护区,严格控制监管力度,划定后采用激励措施,循诊监管,提高永久性基本农田生产力。在确保粮食绝对安全和粮食基本自给自足之后,粮食安全具有准公共产品的性质,可以适当利用市场来提高资源配置效率[20]。地方政府利用全国统一市场转让农地经营权。同时,通过经济、政治促进激励和“三重监督”,统一奖惩管理队伍,实现占用耕地和补充耕地的质量和生态平衡。
5.4 以激励机制为突破的制度转型
保护农业生产用地可以产生四大益处:地方和国家粮食安全保障、农民的就业立命保障、城市和乡村土地得以高效利用、农村天然生境的维护[76]。研究借鉴国外在生态价值定量估算[59,77]、生态保护成本核算[78]、补偿效率分析[79]和耕地外部性效益等[80,81]生态补偿为核心的激励机制尤为重要。李文华等2006年对生态系统服务功能付费和生态效益补偿两个相关概念在内涵上存在的交叉和细微差别进行了比较,指出针对我国的情况,采用生态效益补偿概念更为贴切[82]。建议解决市场机制失灵造成的生态效益外部性,维护社会发展的公平性,利用经济手段激励人们维护和保护生态系统服务功能[75]。目前中国政府的农业补贴虽然不涉及生态补偿的理念,但仍属于产业结构调整,是一种农业生态补偿模式[80]。2009年我国提出增加农民种粮补贴以来,政府较大幅度增加农民种粮补贴和购置农业机械补贴[60]。现行的农业补贴政策对保护农民利益、促进粮食生产有一定的积极作用,耕地生态补偿机制的建立能够为农业补贴提供新的理论、新的渠道和补贴标准量化的依据,可以为耕地转型发展带来突破点。 (1)建立生态补偿市场机制,以市场可行为切入点,试验土地银行机制、生态激励机制、耕地质量鉴定[83,84]与补助额度挂钩、土地发展权转移与购买等机制[85,86]; (2)建立耕地质量循诊体系。耕地生态补偿的目标是保障耕地资源数量、质量、生态的“三位一体”,补偿不能仅仅是生态价格的标识,而是生态服务价值的不断供给。建立不同等级和质量的耕地对应不同的补偿标准,最大化激励保护耕地资源; (3)做好耕地政策绩效评价。政策建立之前,不具保护或者可持续利用的评价,是对潜在社会价值的损失,假设获得恢复衰退或者被破坏的生态系统潜在价值的,即包括建立政策和执行政策时的管理成本、实施成本、监管成本等与各种收益之差[60]; (4)提高公众对生态文明的认知能力。耕地的生态补偿必须得到全社会的关心和支持。重点宣传,提高公众的生态补偿意识,特别是与耕地资源密切相关的农民意识,使公众通过谈判,签订合同,甚至招标,积极参与生态保护和建设中来。公众认知能力提高同时也可促进市场补偿机制发育,缓解以政府为主导的补偿压力; (5)建立针对受众主体、客体的补偿模式。借鉴浙江省临海市、海宁市、慈溪市等三个国家级基本农田保护示范区和桐庐县等8个省级基本农田保护示范区基本农田保护补偿试点工作的经验,建立针对农民的货币补偿模式、针对基层政府和农村集体经济组织的耕地保护工作经费补助模式、针对地方政府官员的政绩补偿模式、针对耕地质量提高的建设补偿模式、针对地区经济发展的跨区域间的资源产业协作模式[35]; (6)建立生态补偿的监管机制。确保顺利实现生态补偿目标。因此,生态补偿标准是建立补偿机制的核心问题,也是外化内化的直接途径。 综合分析,构建基于生态安全约束的耕地永续发展生态格局框架(图3)。 显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT 图3耕地永续发展生态格局 -->Figure 3ecological pattern of sustainable development cropland -->
6 讨论
十九大报告强调“扩大退耕还林还草和扩大轮作休耕试点,以生态文明为导向,建立市场化、多元化生态补偿机制”[13]。面对新时代的耕地休养生息保护制度应当是五位一体(图2[71])的生态文明理念引领。生态循环的有效治理将是耕地轮作休耕模式的常态化。建立差异化的区域休养生息模式;建立灵活的生态补偿型耕地管控激励机制;确定合理的生态补偿区域范围和受众;研究合理的生态补偿经济标准核算方法;制定政府监督和奖励同一平台的惩罚政策,线上和线下智慧管理政策。为建立协调人与自然和谐发展的制度提供参考。做到休而不退、休而不废、休而则优。 将轮作种植补贴与促进生态循环高效农业生产模式联系起来;与乡村振兴战略和精准扶贫战略联系起来;与省际跨区域跨流域,东西向和流域协调补偿机制联系起来。要处理好城市与乡村的关系,使耕地休养生息制度的执行成为“农业转移人口市民化”的助推器,使轮作休耕地成为田园生态城市与城市群发展的新空间,使休耕退耕地成为城市居民对美好生活追求的向往地。最大限度发挥政策与市场的激励效应,保障高质量的执行耕地的休养生息制度。 The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
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