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农户生计对气候变化的恢复力研究综述

本站小编 Free考研考试/2021-12-29

熊思鸿,, 阎建忠,, 吴雅西南大学资源环境学院,重庆 400715

Review on the resilience of farmers' livelihoods to climate change

XIONG Sihong,, YAN Jianzhong,, WU YaCollege of Resources and Environment, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China

通讯作者: 阎建忠(1972-),男,重庆忠县人,研究员,博士生导师,研究方向为土地利用和乡村发展。E-mail: yanjzswu@126.com

收稿日期:2019-08-20修回日期:2019-10-10网络出版日期:2020-08-20
基金资助:国家自然科学基金项目.41571093
国家自然科学基金国际(地区)合作与交流项目.41761144081
中国科学院战略性先导科技专项项目.XDA20040201


Received:2019-08-20Revised:2019-10-10Online:2020-08-20
作者简介 About authors
熊思鸿(1994-),女,四川广安人,硕士研究生,研究方向为土地利用规划E-mail:xiongsh03@foxmail.com, E-mail:xiongsh03@foxmail.com





摘要
随着气候变化对自然生态环境和社会经济可持续发展影响的不断加剧,恢复力逐渐成为应对气候变化的一种新理念。首先梳理了不同领域恢复力概念,进而阐述了农户生计对气候变化的恢复力的科学内涵及研究框架。然后重点分析了农户生计对气候变化的恢复力在资本、政府机构、自组织能力和学习能力四方面的具体表现。最后从定性和定量两方面归纳了生计恢复力的度量方法。定性评价方法主要包括农户问卷调查、关键线人访谈、重点小组讨论、生计轨迹方法和案例分析等,定量评价方法包括指标替代法、结构动力学分析法、贝叶斯网络模型法、基准线对比法等。未来研究应注重完善农户生计对气候变化的恢复力评价方法、加强农户生计对气候变化的恢复力动态研究并且开展区域间农户生计对气候变化的恢复力对比研究。
关键词: 恢复力;气候变化;生计;可持续性;适应

Abstract
With the awareness of climate change and its possible consequences to natural environment and human society, livelihood resilience has gradually become a new and key concept in our efforts to cope with the risks induced by climate change. On the basis of combing the concept of resilience in different fields, the scientific connotation and research framework of farmers' livelihood resilience to climate change are presented to improve the resilience of farmers' livelihood to climate change which mainly reflects assets, government apparatus, self-organization capacity and learning capacity. Finally, the measurement methods of livelihood resilience are summarized from aspects of qualitative and quantitative evaluation. Qualitative evaluation methods mainly include field questionnaire survey, key informants interview, key group discussion, livelihood trajectory method and case analysis. Quantitative evaluation methods mainly contain indicator substitution method, structural dynamics analysis, Bayesian network model and baseline comparison method. Future research needs to improve the evaluation method, strengthen the dynamic study and carry out regional comparative studies on the resilience of farmers' livelihood to climate change.
Keywords:resilience;climate change;livelihood;sustainability;adaptation


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本文引用格式
熊思鸿, 阎建忠, 吴雅. 农户生计对气候变化的恢复力研究综述. 地理研究[J], 2020, 39(8): 1934-1946 doi:10.11821/dlyj020190720
XIONG Sihong, YAN Jianzhong, WU Ya. Review on the resilience of farmers' livelihoods to climate change. Geographical Research[J], 2020, 39(8): 1934-1946 doi:10.11821/dlyj020190720


1 引言

近几十年来,气候变化及其对自然、社会和经济的影响逐渐成为世界各地区面临和亟待解决的一项重大研究课题。政府间气候变化专门委员会(IPCC)第五次评估报告[1]指出:全球气候正在发生以变暖为主要特征的变化且预估未来气候变暖仍将持续。与1986—2005年相比,全球平均地表温度预计将升高0.3~0.7℃(2016—2035年),同时降水呈现“干者愈干、湿者愈湿”的趋势,极暖事件增多,极冷事件减少,全球海平面进一步上升等。尽管温度升高会促进作物和牧草产量增加[2],但极端气候和天气事件增多,如洪水直接导致疟疾发病率增加、人的死亡等[3,4],破坏性强,对生计系统的影响更大,特别是发展中国家将面临更严重的危害[5]。恢复力(resilience)理论试图通过分析系统适应变化的能力,为生态环境、自然资源管理以及社会经济可持续发展研究提供新的工具和理念[6]。面对未来气候变化带来的不确定因素,许多****认为恢复力思想可能是增强生计、促进可持续发展的最优方式[7,8,9]

恢复力是指系统处理并响应灾害性事件、趋势或扰动,进行结构重组,保持其必要功能、结构和特性,同时维持系统适应、学习和转型的能力[10]。恢复力思想从早期的自然生态系统、社会经济系统发展到社会-生态复杂系统,现已被广泛运用于灾害管理、气候变化、社会生态和可持续发展研究等多个领域[11,12,13,14]。在日益严峻的气候变化背景下,农户生计恢复力受到学界、各级政府机构和政策制定者等的高度重视[15]。近年来,****们在国家、地区、社区、家庭等不同尺度开展了研究[16,17,18],主要关注气候变化对生计恢复力的影响、生计恢复力评估以及气候变化感知与适应策略如何提高生计恢复力等方面[19,20,21,22]。农户作为农村系统最基本的生计单元和行为主体,是气候扰动最直接的承受者,其生计直接或间接受到气候变化的影响,尤其是低收入国家的贫困农户。一方面,贫困农户的生计极度依赖农、林、牧、渔等自然资源部门,这些资源受气候变化的影响较大,如水资源短缺、捕鱼量下降等[23];另一方面,气候变化会导致人类健康受损、牲畜死亡和基础设施破坏等,造成贫困农户的人力、物质和社会等资本损失,进一步加剧其生计脆弱性[24,25]。对于这类生计难以维持的贫困农户而言,生计恢复力可以帮助其实现生计的恢复。因此,开展农户生计对气候变化的恢复力研究,有助于理解气候变化(包括压力和冲击)对研究主体的扰动机制,发现脆弱群体生计恢复的关键制约因素,帮助农户在面临气候变化扰动时维持和改善生计[26,27,28]

目前,关于系统梳理农户生计对气候变化恢复力的研究较少。农户生计对气候变化的恢复力是什么?主要表现在哪些方面?其决定因素有哪些以及如何被度量、维持和提升?这些问题亟待厘清。因此,本文在梳理不同领域恢复力的概念基础上,阐述了农户生计对气候变化恢复力的科学内涵。基于生计恢复力分析框架和可持续生计框架提出了农户生计对气候变化的恢复力研究框架,重点分析了农户生计对气候变化的恢复力表现和生计恢复力综合评估度量方法。最后提出了未来发展方向,以期为政府制定科学有效的气候变化适应策略和中国生计系统恢复力的后续研究提供参考依据。

2 农户生计对气候变化的恢复力科学内涵和研究框架

2.1 农户生计对气候变化的恢复力科学内涵

恢复力概念于1973年首次被生态学家Holling引入生态领域后,所关注的方面从早期的自然生态系统(如生态恢复力)发展到社会经济系统(社区恢复力、城市恢复力和企业恢复力等)以及社会-生态复杂系统(农业恢复力、粮食安全恢复力、灾害恢复力等)。不同学科背景下恢复力的内涵不同(表1)。综合各学科对恢复力的定义,恢复力是指某个系统受到干扰时,系统结构和功能保持不变,接受干扰并重组的能力,包括系统能吸收的扰动量,系统自组织的能力以及激励并提高学习和适应能力的程度[23,29]。综上所述,恢复力要求系统应该具备以下能力:① 吸收外部变化带来的压力且能维持系统正常运转;② 系统能够适应变化、结构重组以及功能发展到更完备的状态,系统可持续性提高;③ 为应对未来可能发生的变化做好准备[30,31]

Tab. 1
表1
表1不同领域恢复力的定义
Tab. 1Definition of resilience in different fields
研究对象举例概念内涵学科领域文献来源
自然生态
系统
海岸带恢复力海岸带在变化的水文和地貌环境中保持实际和潜在功能的自组织能力。生态学[32]
生态恢复力生态系统受到扰动后仍维持其重要特征(包括生物组成、结构、生态系统功能等),并恢复到稳定状态的能力。生态学[33]
社会经济
系统
社区恢复力社区应对社会、政治和环境变化带来的压力和扰动的能力。社区[34, 35]
城市恢复力城市系统能够准备、响应特定的多重威胁并从中恢复,并将其对公共安全健康和经济的影响降至最低的能力。城市[36, 37]
企业恢复力企业根据股东和持股人的意愿和需求,制定相应的方法政策保证企业的持续增长和发展,通过风险预测、机会辨识、产品选择和销售设计等一系列措施应对外部变化的能力。组织[38]
社会-生态复杂系统农业恢复力农业生产及与之相关的人类社会遭受外界干扰时,通过系统自我调节和外部能量输入,维持农业系统本身的结构、功能、特性并恢复到稳定状态的能力。农业系统[39, 40]
粮食安全恢复力一个家庭通过承受冲击和压力保持一定程度的福利(即食物安全)的能力,并在承受变化的同时进行重组,以保持与原状基本上相同的功能、结构、身份和反馈,这取决于家庭可供选择的谋生手段和处理风险的能力。粮食安全[41]
灾害恢复力一个系统在面临灾害(如地震、干旱等)时,能够及时有效地抵御、吸纳和承受灾害的影响,并从中恢复的能力。灾害管理[42]

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农户生计对气候变化的恢复力研究是在生计系统下进行的。厘清生计和生计恢复力的概念内涵有助于深入理解农户生计对气候变化的恢复力。目前生计较为普遍的定义是一种建立在能力、资本(包括储备物、资源、要求权和享有权)和活动基础之上的谋生方式[43]。生计恢复力则被定义为不同尺度下生计对变化和扰动做出反应、恢复和学习,并改进其生计模式以适应变化和挑战的能力[44,45]。对农户而言,生计直接或间接暴露在气候变化下,即气候变化对家庭能力、资本或活动造成不利影响。农户生计对气候变化的恢复力是指农户生计对气候变化做出反应,保持生计系统结构和功能不变,同时维持适应、学习和转型的能力。

2.2 农户生计对气候变化的恢复力研究框架

Speranza等提出生计恢复力分析框架,从缓冲能力(buffer capacity)、自组织能力(self-organization capacity)和学习能力(learning capacity)3个维度对生计恢复力进行研究[46]。缓冲能力是指一个系统为了保持原有结构、功能及对结构和功能的反馈可承受的变化或干扰度。从农户生计角度理解,缓冲能力是指农户利用生计资本以及获得资本的权利和机会来应对气候变化带来的冲击,主要包括人力资本、自然资本、金融资本、社会资本和物质资本。自组织能力主要强调人类的主体能力、适应能力、权力和社会互动对恢复力的影响[47],如制度、合作与网络、社会关系、自组织机会和资源依赖度等。学习能力即系统的适应性管理,是指系统从以往的经验和知识中学习进而指导当前的行动,并存储记忆。学习能力包括对威胁和潜在机会的感知、社会共同愿景、学习能力、知识识别、共享、转化能力以及运作反馈机制。该框架主要描述了生计恢复力的重要组成要素,即表明生计恢复力“是什么”,但没有回答“对什么的恢复力”,以及缺乏对恢复力主体所处的外部环境和内部适应及其两者之间相互作用的分析。

英国国际发展署(DFID)提出的可持续生计框架是一种寻求农户生计脆弱性原因并提供多种解决对策的集成分析框架和建设性工具[48],为世界各地农户生计研究提供了理论基础。从微观角度解释,农户利用自然、社会、金融、人力和物质等资本以及依赖政策、制度、社会过程等在脆弱背景下谋生,从而寻求最佳生计组合并达到积极的生计产出(如收入增加、脆弱性降低和福利改善等)[49]。可持续生计框架较为全面地分析了各种因素对农户生计的影响以及各因素间的相互作用,为探讨农户生计恢复力的“决定因素是什么”提供了理论参考。部分****基于可持续生计框架对生计恢复力进行了评估[50,51,52],但其研究仍存在不足。如多是集中于社区尺度研究,恢复力结果缺乏微观可视化方法,忽视人类机构在生计恢复力建设中的重要作用[53]

参考上述框架,本文绘制出农户生计对气候变化的恢复力研究框架(图1)。气温、降水等气候因素和干旱、雪灾等极端气候事件对农户生计资本或能力产生直接或间接影响,而政府采取的干预措施、生计资本的累积有利于降低农户对气候变化的敏感性,增强缓冲能力[54]。市场、信贷、政策等自上而下和社区组织机构等自下而上的外部驱动因素能够降低气候变化的不利影响[55,56]。农户向外界和以往经验学习,并利用获得的新知识、新技术和新渠道等指导现有生计方式的能力是恢复力的重要组成部分[57]。综合各种因素,农户不断调整适应过程从而寻求最佳生计策略,提高生计对气候变化的恢复力。农户生计对气候变化的恢复力框架解释了恢复力“是什么”“对什么的恢复力”以及气候变化与农户生计恢复力之间的作用关系,同时强调了政府机构对农户生计恢复力建设的重要作用。因此,该框架不仅适用于政府机构发达的国家(比如中国),对其他遭受气候变化不利影响的国家和地区同样适用。

图1

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图1农户生计对气候变化的恢复力研究框架

Fig. 1Research framework of farmers' livelihood resilience to climate change



3 农户生计对气候变化的恢复力表现

农户生计对气候变化的恢复力表现根据气候变化对生计影响的不同存在差异。气候变化对农户生计的影响主要表现为气候要素长期变化和突发性气象灾害对生计要素的影响,其实质是对构成农户生计可利用的资源、谋生活动以及能力的影响[58]。为缓解气候变化的不利影响,政府机构和农户分别采取不同的政策或措施提升农户生计恢复力。因此,本文从资本、政府机构、自组织能力和学习能力四方面总结了恢复力表现(表2)。

Tab. 2
表2
表2农户生计对气候变化的恢复力表现
Tab. 2Resilience characteristics of farmers' livelihood to climate change
恢复力表现具体措施参考文献
资本自然:土壤保护、种植改良/耐旱作物、作物多样化、调整作物种植和收获日期、人工种草[22, 59-64]
金融:汇款、获得信贷
物质:机械化、修建水塘(农户自主修建)、增加牲畜数量、调整房屋地基
人力:提高受教育水平、保持安全健康
政府机构补贴:生态补偿、直接补贴牲畜
基础设施:灌溉设施、饮用水工程、政府投资效率、完善市场和贸易、市场准入
政策:建立保护区、退牧还林还草、禁牧政策、湿地分配政策、森林管理、市场干预政策
[63-71]
自组织能力社区一级进行风险评估、规划、实施和监测、社区提供资源、社区修建防水堤坝[14, 65, 72]
学习能力生计多样化、种植制度多样化、渔业旅游、教育和推广服务、向以往经验学习、迁移[62, 73-76]
注:由于社会资本在政府机构和自组织能力两方面有所体现,故表中资本部分没有对其进行单独分类。

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农业生产直接依赖于光温水土等自然要素,因此依赖农业的生计对气候变化非常敏感。一方面,气候变暖使作物生长周期延长、种植制度改变、种植适宜区增加、种植界限的海拔和纬度上移、产量增加等[77,78,79];另一方面,气候变化导致干旱、洪水、冰雹等气象灾害和病虫害增多,直接造成产量下降,农业收入降低[80]。总的来说,气候变化对农业生产的影响主要表现在作物生产潜力、品种和布局、病虫害等方面[81,82]。在此背景下,农户或政府一般采取调整种植周期和种植制度、选择改良品种(包括政府推广良种)、农业集约化、机械化(机械费用包括农户自费和政府补贴)、修建灌溉设施(包括农户自己修建和政府资助修建)和生计多样化等恢复措施减缓气候变化对农业生产的影响[83,84,85,86]。如干旱地区农户可通过调整作物种植时期、种植耐旱易熟品种、修建灌溉渠道等恢复措施来降低干旱对农作物的影响[70,87]

依赖草地、林业、渔业等自然资源的家庭也受到气候变化的直接或间接影响,并采取了不同的恢复措施。在牧区,草地气候呈暖干化趋势,使草场产草的数量和质量降低、杂草和毒草的比例增加、植被种类变化,导致草场生产力下降、牲畜饲料不足,进而对牲畜资本产生影响(死亡、发病率提高、副产品产量和质量等变化)[88]。因此,国家层面通过采取“退牧还草”“禁牧”“生态补偿”、牲畜补贴等政策措施保护草地资源[69,89]。牧民则主要通过人工种草、畜棚建设、调整畜种结构、轮牧、生计多样化等自主方式缓解气候变化对生计造成的影响[90,91]。气候变化对林业资源的影响主要表现在木材、树种和生物多样性变化等[92],从而导致家庭的林业收入减少。政府或农户主要通过森林管理、地类变更(如湿地变更成林地)、借贷等办法维持生计恢复力[76]。在沿海地区,海平面上升、洪水、飓风等可能会导致鱼类繁殖和分布发生变化,数量和种类减少,间接降低渔民的渔业收入或直接造成房屋、渔船和基础设施等资本损失,加剧渔民的生计脆弱性[93]。政府或渔民通过建立保护区、发展旅游和修建堤坝等措施缓冲气候变化带来的冲击和压力[72,94]。总之,为了提高生计恢复力,应对气候变化的不利影响,政府机构或农户针对性地采取了不同的生计恢复办法。

人类健康对气候变化很敏感,主要表现为人们直接暴露在气温、降水变化以及高温热浪、暴雨洪涝和干旱等气候变化中,通过自然系统间接对人产生影响(比如生物性和水源性传染病、空气污染等)以及职业、营养不良和心理压力等受人类系统调节的间接影响3个方面[1]。政府一般通过加强公共卫生基础设施建设(比如垃圾集中处理站、废水处理和再利用设施等)、传染病防控、水源保护、污染监测和控制、医疗保险制度等进行干预。家庭主要采取迁移、汇款和健康管理(看病)等恢复办法应对气候风险[95,96,97]

综合上述研究发现,政府机构在农户生计对气候变化的恢复力建设中发挥着关键作用,主要表现在现金和实物补贴、基础设施建设以及政策实施。现金和实物补贴是对农户金融和物质资本的直接补充,可用于购买粮食、看病买药等,防止家庭在气候变化中资本损失扩大(如人/牲畜死亡、失踪等)。基础设施建设能够预防气候变化带来的不利影响,增强农户的缓冲能力,比如通过灌溉设施可以有效减缓干旱对农作物造成的粮食减产等。另外,政府制定的各种政策通过影响生计资本从而间接影响农户生计恢复力。比如开垦政策:政府统一将湿地开垦为耕地,增加了农作物种植面积,粮食安全得以保障。总之,政府机构直接或间接地影响着农户生计对气候变化的恢复力建设。

4 农户生计对气候变化的恢复力评价研究进展

生计恢复力评价是恢复力相关研究中的另一重要内容。鉴于气候变化影响的全球性特点,农户生计对气候变化的恢复力已成为国际组织、各国政府、科学机构和政策制定者设计应对气候变化方案的重要理念。然而,目前有关农户生计对气候变化的恢复力的度量研究还较为薄弱,主要以定性研究为主,定量研究相对较少。

4.1 定性评价

定性评价侧重于理论分析,多关注恢复力的形成机制、对农户生计系统的重要性以及影响因素等方面,具有一定的可实践性和说服力。但农户生计对气候变化的恢复力相关研究尚处于起步阶段,有待进一步发展。Ayeb-Karlsson等采用个人生计史访谈的方法,定性分析了孟加拉国家庭生计对气候变化的恢复力和适应性[98]。Tebboth等运用农村评估、生活史访谈和家庭调查等混合方法,对中国安徽省不同迁移模式家庭生计在气候扰动背景下的恢复力进行了对比分析,认为短期迁移的家庭的恢复力高于长期迁移的家庭[73]。Hirons等利用重点小组讨论和关键线人访谈等方法,研究了加纳中部地区种植可可的农民抵御干旱的恢复力措施,认为获得湿地和信贷的机会是当地应对气候冲击的关键因素[59]。Ashkenazy等利用欧洲14个国家的案例定性调查了恢复力如何在农村和农业发展中发挥作用[99]。Shah等利用住户问卷调查和访谈等方法,对菲律宾稻农的主观情感认知在农户生计对气候变化的恢复力中的作用进行了定性分析[100]

4.2 定量评价

定量评价能大大推动理论的形象化和具体化。目前,学术界包括生态学、经济学、气象学、地理学和灾害学等领域的专家****都在尝试量化系统恢复力,但具体针对农户生计对气候变化的恢复力的度量研究还较少。实际上,恢复力受诸多因素影响,对其进行直接测量比较困难[101],但可选取替代指标进行测量[6,44]。从现有研究来看,量化农户生计对气候变化的恢复力的方法主要是指标替代法。该方法通过选取恢复力的诸多替代指标并赋予各指标权重,计算得出恢复力指数,从而实现对恢复力的定量化研究。恢复力替代指标选取,一是基于可持续生计框架。如Quandt等借鉴五大生计资本构建了生计资本综合得分指数,探讨了农林收入是否以及如何增强肯尼亚Isiolo县小农应对区域气候变化的恢复力,研究表明,从事农林业的家庭比从事农业的家庭拥有更高的恢复力[52]。二是基于恢复力的属性,即系统能够承受并维持其原稳定态的变化阈值、系统的自组织能力以及系统学习和适应变化的能力[101]。如温腾飞等基于“缓冲能力-自组织能力-学习能力”3个维度选取了19个指标构建了黄土高原地区农户对干旱的恢复力指数,认为家庭存款、人均收入、家庭教育投入、户主教育程度、粮食自给能力和社会网络是农户生计对气候变化的恢复力的核心影响因素[102]。因此,本文从自然、金融、物质、人力、政府机构、自组织能力和学习能力方面总结了农户生计对气候变化的恢复力指标(表3),为恢复力定量评价提供参考。

Tab. 3
表3
表3农户生计对气候变化的恢复力评价指标
Tab. 3Resilience assessment indicators of farmers' livelihood to climate change
类型指标文献来源
自然家庭拥有的土地、牧草地、林地、渔业等资源等[15, 53, 103-105]
金融收入、储蓄、借贷、现金、实物补贴等
物质牲畜、耐用品、房屋、生产工具等
人力家庭规模和人口构成、健康和营养状况、教育情况等
政府机构水、电、通讯、学校、医疗、道路、市场的可获得程度、灌溉设施、气候预警系统等[50, 103, 105, 106]
自组织能力粮食自给能力、邻里信任、参与社区活动、参与社区组织、社会关系网络、市政服务等[107, 108]
学习能力技能和培训机会、非农经验、信息获取能力、最高教育程度、收入多样性等[102, 109, 110]
注:由于社会资本在政府机构和自组织能力两方面有所体现,故表中资本部分没有对其进行单独分类。

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近年来,农户生计恢复力定量评价还出现了其他方法,诸如结构动力学分析法、贝叶斯网络模型法、基准线对比法等。结构动力学分析法是一种包含结构行为的结构分析,在动态描述、因果分析和生计响应估计等方面具有优势,在识别不同因素的结构效应方面能发挥重要作用。如Fang等运用结构动力学分析法,对四川省农村居民的生计恢复力变化进行了研究,分析得出农户生计对气候灾害的恢复力与生活质量、生计推广和生计供应呈显著正相关关系,与灾害压力呈显著负相关关系[45]。贝叶斯网络模型法一般通过集成不同类型的数据构建模型,从而推理出系统恢复力的影响因素。如Merritt等利用该方法研究水文、生物物理知识和家庭生计资本与印度农户对干旱的恢复力之间的关系,认为流域开发项目影响了自然资本,从而影响家庭抵御干旱的能力[111]。基准线对比法是通过特定的一套方法和指标建立系统恢复力的基线条件,根据时间变化监测并比较不同系统恢复力的变化情况。如Cutter等利用基准线对比法对美国东南部各县进行对比分析,发现社会、经济、体制、基础设施和社区能力等恢复力驱动因素在不同社区间差异很大[112]

总的来说,农户生计对气候变化的恢复力量化评价主要关注恢复力的决定因素和如何增强农户生计应对气候变化的能力等方面,且仅对指标替代法有一些较深入的研究。目前既没有针对某种气候冲击建立恢复力指标体系,也没有建立比较普遍适用的综合评估模型。但生计恢复力评估在应对气候变化和生计可持续发展中的价值已受到足够重视。

5 研究展望

目前国内外****在农户生计对气候变化的恢复力的内涵是什么、对什么的恢复力、影响恢复力的因素以及如何度量和提升恢复力等方面都进行了一些研究,具有一定的理论和实践意义。但国内农户生计对气候变化的恢复力研究仍存在一些不足。针对目前的不足,未来国内研究可以从以下三方面努力。

5.1 完善农户生计对气候变化的恢复力评价方法

农户生计对气候变化的恢复力综合评价比较薄弱。定性评价方法主要包括农户问卷调查、关键线人访谈、重点小组讨论、生计轨迹方法、案例分析等。定量评价方法除了常用的指标替代法外,也出现了结构动力学分析法、贝叶斯网络模型法、基准线对比法等。气候变化类型多种多样,对农户生计造成的影响也存在差异,完善农户生计对气候变化的恢复力评价方法对恢复力综合评价至关重要。以恢复力理论为基础的各领域恢复力评价方法具有共通之处,可为农户生计对气候变化的恢复力量化研究提供参考。因此,有必要借鉴其他系统或领域的恢复力评价方法。如测量生态系统恢复力的模糊评价法、维持性拟合法,度量社会-生态系统恢复力的集对分析法、空间分析法、复杂网络理论方法和评估灾害恢复力的地方灾害恢复力模式(DROP)等。同时也可以借鉴脆弱性研究中应用的信息扩散模糊数学理论、灰色系统理论方法等对生计恢复力进行评估,因为脆弱性和恢复力两个概念在很大程度上呈现为互补关系,低脆弱性意味着高恢复力,反之亦然。

5.2 加强农户生计对气候变化的恢复力动态研究

系统恢复力具有动态性质,即农户生计对气候变化的恢复力会随着时间变化而变化。另外,系统所处环境、恢复力主体的行为方式等均处于变化之中,对恢复力也会产生影响。比如恢复力强的家庭可能由于遭受某次特大气候冲击生计变得脆弱或者低恢复力的家庭因为政府扶持增强了恢复力。如何使家庭生计恢复力持续维持在高水平状态是学界、各级政府机构和农户都关注的焦点。因此,可加强农户生计恢复力的动态变化研究,探索不同阶段限制家庭恢复力提升的因素,从而为不同行为对象(地方政府、社区、农户等)制定适当的气候变化应对策略提供理论依据。

5.3 开展区域间农户生计对气候变化的恢复力对比研究

全球气候变化不仅是一个以科学、管理或技术方式处理的环境问题,也是一个政治和司法难题[56]。开展区域间生计对气候变化的恢复力对比研究,并有针对性地提出切实可行的应对策略,有助于促进生计可持续发展。一方面,开展国内不同典型脆弱区域的对比研究。中国气候复杂多样,不同区域农户生计由于自然环境、管理体制、社会经济和文化习俗等不同,对气候变化的恢复力也存在明显差异。但目前国内恢复力研究主要以北方干旱半干旱地区为主,而对沿海地区、深度贫困地区、地质灾害频发区等经常遭受气象灾害或资源短缺的地区关注较少。另一方面,开展国际区域间的对比研究。面对气候变化带来的不利影响,不同国家采取的应对策略不同,如中国政府通过长期基础设施建设,有效减缓了气候变化的负面效应,但一些国家的农户受到气候冲击后短时间内生计仍然难以恢复。因此,有必要对气候条件和自然环境类似的国际间区域进行对比研究,比较不同区域农户生计对气候变化的恢复力差异,从而为易受气候变化不利影响的区域提供经验。

致谢:

真诚感谢匿名评审专家在论文评审中所付出的时间和精力,评审专家对本文摘要、文献综述、理论框架构建、研究展望、参考文献方面的修改意见,使本文获益匪浅。


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Global climate change is anticipated to raise overall temperatures and has the potential to increase future mortality attributable to heat. Urban areas are particularly vulnerable to heat because of high concentrations of susceptible people. As the world's largest developing country, China has experienced noticeable changes in climate, partially evidenced by frequent occurrence of extreme heat in urban areas, which could expose millions of residents to summer heat stress that may result in increased health risk, including mortality. While there is a growing literature on future impacts of extreme temperatures on public health, projecting changes in future health outcomes associated with climate warming remains challenging and underexplored, particularly in developing countries. This is an exploratory study aimed at projecting future heat-related mortality risk in major urban areas in China. We focus on the 51 largest Chinese cities that include about one third of the total population in China, and project the potential changes in heat-related mortality based on 19 different global-scale climate models and three Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs). City-specific risk estimates for high temperature and all-cause mortality were used to estimate annual heat-related mortality over two future twenty-year time periods. We estimated that for the 20-year period in Mid-21st century (2041-2060) relative to 1970-2000, incidence of excess heat-related mortality in the 51 cities to be approximately 37,800 (95% CI: 31,300-43,500), 31,700 (95% CI: 26,200-36,600) and 25,800 (95% CI: 21,300-29,800) deaths per year under RCP8.5, RCP4.5 and RCP2.6, respectively. Slowing climate change through the most stringent emission control scenario RCP2.6, relative to RCP8.5, was estimated to avoid 12,900 (95% CI: 10,800-14,800) deaths per year in the 51 cities in the 2050s, and 35,100 (95% CI: 29,200-40,100) deaths per year in the 2070s. The highest mortality risk is primarily in cities located in the North, East and Central regions of China. Population adaptation to heat is likely to reduce excess heat mortality, but the extent of adaptation is still unclear. Future heat mortality risk attributable to exposure to elevated warm season temperature is likely to be considerable in China's urban centers, with substantial geographic variations. Climate mitigation and heat risk management are needed to reduce such risk and produce substantial public health benefits.

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Extreme climatic events are likely to become more frequent owing to global warming. This may put additional stress on critical infrastructures with typically long life spans. However, little is known about the risks of multiple climate extremes on critical infrastructures at regional to continental scales. Here we show how single- and multi-hazard damage to energy, transport, industrial, and social critical infrastructures in Europe are likely to develop until the year 2100 under the influence of climate change. We combine a set of high-resolution climate hazard projections, a detailed representation of physical assets in various sectors and their sensitivity to the hazards, and more than 1100 records of losses from climate extremes in a prognostic modelling framework. We find that damages could triple by the 2020s, multiply six-fold by mid-century, and amount to more than 10 times present damage of euro3.4 billion per year by the end of the century due only to climate change. Damage from heatwaves, droughts in southern Europe, and coastal floods shows the most dramatic rise, but the risks of inland flooding, windstorms, and forest fires will also increase in Europe, with varying degrees of change across regions. Economic losses are highest for the industry, transport, and energy sectors. Future losses will not be incurred equally across Europe. Southern and south-eastern European countries will be most affected and, as a result, will probably require higher costs of adaptation. The findings of this study could aid in prioritizing regional investments to address the unequal burden of impacts and differences in adaptation capacities across Europe.

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目前国内外对脆弱性的论述很多,然而关于恢复力的研究却刚刚起步且困难重重。1973年Holling创造性地将恢复力引入到生态系统稳定性的研究中,并将其定义为系统吸收干扰并继续维持其功能、结构、反馈等不发生质变的能力。30多年来这一术语的概念和内涵在大量的案例研究中得到了丰富和完善,然而这些研究对恢复力的不同解释亦造成了大量的混淆,因此需要在统一的理论基础上,根据控制系统变化的属性来构建恢复力的概念并进行应用研究。在社会-生态系统框架下,分析了恢复力研究的基础理论——适应性循环及扰沌,对其概念及内涵做了进展综述,回顾了恢复力的应用案例,探讨了定量化问题,在此基础上对社会-生态系统恢复力的研究进行了展望,提出了面临的关键问题及今后的研究方向。
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恢复力作为社会-生态系统的一个重要属性,是复杂系统实施可持续发展的重要途径之一。在已有认识和研究成果的基础上,本文首先概述了关于恢复力及农业系统恢复力概念的观点。然后从农业系统恢复力的影响因素、农业系统恢复力评价和农业系统恢复力研究的尺度效应三方面梳理了近年来国内外的研究进展,从自然因素(水资源、土地资源和气候资源)和社会因素(经济状况、资源管理制度和社会特征等)两方面总结了影响农业系统恢复力的因素,探讨了时间尺度和空间尺度对农业系统恢复力的影响,从定性和定量评价两方面归纳了农业系统恢复力的度量方法。进而指出未来中国农业系统恢复力的研究应注重采用多尺度多过程耦合分析以及量化分析,加强对半干旱区以外气候变化较脆弱地区的研究,并且关注社会因素在农业系统恢复力中的作用。
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Climate change affects the productivity of agricultural ecosystems. Farmers cope with climate change based on their perceptions of changing climate patterns. Using a case study from the Middle Yarlung Zangbo River Valley, we present a new research framework that uses questionnaire and interview methods to compare local farmers' perceptions of climate change with the adaptive farming strategies they adopt. Most farmers in the valley believed that temperatures had increased in the last 30 years but did not note any changes in precipitation. Most farmers also reported sowing and harvesting hulless barley 10-15 days earlier than they were 20 years ago. In addition, farmers observed that plants were flowering and river ice was melting earlier in the season, but they did not perceive changes in plant germination, herbaceous vegetation growth, or other spring seasonal events. Most farmers noticed an extended fall season signified by delays in the freezing of rivers and an extended growing season for grassland vegetation. The study results showed that agricultural practices in the study area are still traditional; that is, local farmers' perceptions of climate change and their strategies to mitigate its impacts were based on indigenous knowledge and their own experiences. Adaptive strategies included adjusting planting and harvesting dates, changing crop species, and improving irrigation infrastructure. However, the farmers' decisions could not be fully attributed to their concerns about climate change. Local farming systems exhibit high adaptability to climate variability. Additionally, off-farm income has reduced the dependence of the farmers on agriculture, and an agricultural subsidy from the Chinese Central Government has mitigated the farmers' vulnerability. Nevertheless, it remains necessary for local farmers to build a system of adaptive climate change strategies that combines traditional experience and indigenous knowledge with scientific research and government polices as key factors.

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The Ganges-Brahmaputra delta enables Bangladesh to sustain a dense population, but it also exposes people to natural hazards. This article presents findings from the Gibika project, which researches livelihood resilience in seven study sites across Bangladesh. This study aims to understand how people in the study sites build resilience against environmental stresses, such as cyclones, floods, riverbank erosion, and drought, and in what ways their strategies sometimes fail. The article applies a new methodology for studying people's decision making in risk-prone environments: the personal Livelihood History interviews (N = 28). The findings show how environmental stress, shocks, and disturbances affect people's livelihood resilience and why adaptation measures can be unsuccessful. Floods, riverbank erosion, and droughts cause damage to agricultural lands, crops, houses, and properties. People manage to adapt by modifying their agricultural practices, switching to alternative livelihoods, or using migration as an adaptive strategy. In the coastal study sites, cyclones are a severe hazard. The study reveals that when a cyclone approaches, people sometimes choose not to evacuate: they put their lives at risk to protect their livelihoods and properties. Future policy and adaptation planning must use lessons learned from people currently facing environmental stress and shocks.

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深入地理解旅游目的地社区恢复力的影响因素及其作用机制,是旅游地理学研究的重要方向。在文献梳理基础上,采用结构方程模型方法,以九寨沟和都江堰旅游社区为例,探讨了旅游目的地社区恢复力关键影响因素的作用机制。研究发现:① 地方依恋、职业认同、社区参与、社区增权和社会资本对旅游目的地社区恢复力均具有显著的正向影响。按照影响程度,地方依恋、职业认同、社区增权和社会资本对旅游目的地社区恢复力的影响属于中效果,社区参与对旅游目的地社区恢复力的影响属于强效果。② 社区增权和社会资本对社区参与和旅游目的地社区恢复力的作用关系起着重要的中介作用。研究不仅拓展了旅游可持续发展研究的内容和视角,而且为增强旅游目的地适应能力提供了理论指导。
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