A review of change in agricultural multifunctionality in metropolitan areas under rapid urbanization in China
HUANGJiao1,2,, LIShuangcheng1,2 1. College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China2. Key Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes of the Ministry of Education, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China 收稿日期:2017-08-23 修回日期:2018-01-25 网络出版日期:2018-05-02 版权声明:2018《资源科学》编辑部《资源科学》编辑部 基金资助:国家自然科学基金重大项目(41590843) 作者简介: -->作者简介:黄姣,女,四川三台人,博士后,从事土地利用与覆被变化的生态效应及政策研究。E-mail: huangjiao86@163.com
关键词:城镇化;都市区;农业多功能性;中国;综述 Abstract Agriculture can provide multiple economic, ecological and social functions beyond food and fibre production. Agricultural multifunctionality is an important issue in agricultural transformation, land use management and sustainable urban development in metropolitan areas under rapid urbanization. In China, much research has focused on agricultural multifunctionality or the impacts of urbanization on agriculture. However, there is still a lack of synthetic studies regarding the application of the Multifunctional Agriculture research paradigm on analyzing the change and adaptation of agriculture in metropolitan areas. Based upon an extensive review in China we aimed to illustrate the conceptual framework of agricultural multifunctionality and summarize the assessment indicators in order to create a widely accepted research framework for agricultural multifunctionality. We also aimed to analyze changes in agricultural multifunctionality and agricultural systems in metropolitan areas under rapid urbanization in China. The results show that rapid urbanization has changed not only the main types of agricultural functions in metropolitan areas but also interactions among functions. Different adaptation strategies by different stakeholders led to seven main categories of agricultural systems, including the farmer-household-based agro-tourism, specialized and large-scale food production and processing groups, agricultural scientific research parks, enterprise-based recreational agricultural parks, public agricultural parks, conservation agriculture and community supported agriculture. Changes in the main activities and functions of these agricultural systems show a trend towards high multifunctionality of agriculture in metropolitan areas in China. Finally, suggestions are provided to promote research on agricultural multifunctionality and policy-making for the development of sustainable metropolitan agriculture in China.
农业多功能性概念在1992年联合国环境与发展大会上正式使用,随后在经济合作与发展组织(OECD)和欧盟的推动下成为国际学术和政策研究的热点。但不同国家和组织关于农业多功能性的内涵始终存在不同看法[5,7,8]。中国****也曾多次尝试对农业多功能性的概念和分类体系进行梳理[9,10,11,12],但未能形成一个广泛接受的框架体系。究其深层原因,在于目前缺少反映农业多功能性产生机制的概念模型,在罗列农业功能的时候就常常忽略不同功能之间的层级关系,例如将生产功能和经济功能并列[13]或等同[14,15]。 农业多功能性本质上依赖于农业生态系统提供的产品、服务及其与社会经济系统的相互作用[8],因此本文尝试借鉴傅伯杰等[16]整合的生态系统服务级联框架,在已有文献的基础上梳理出了适用于都市区农业多功能性的概念框架,如图1所示。首先,农业生态系统的结构和过程是形成其产品和服务的基础。农业生态系统是受人类高度干预的生态系统,除光照、热量、水源、生物和土壤等基本要素外,还需要劳动力、资本、材料等人工投入[5,6]。农业生态系统的产出主要包括粮食、果蔬等生物产品,气候调节、噪音消减等对生态环境的调节服务,景观、休闲等文化服务,和农药、化肥面源污染等“负”服务。初级生产、土壤形成和营养循环等支持服务是维持农业生态系统正常运转以获得其他产出的基础。然后,农业生态系统的这些产出经过社会经济系统的分配和转化,从经济、生态和社会三个维度形成造福人类的收益,从而定义了农业承担的多种角色,即农业多功能性。 显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT 图1都市区农业多功能性概念框架 -->Figure 1A framework of agricultural multifunctionality in metropolitan areas 注:*因为农业生态系统的负服务对生态环境造成负面影响,所以这里把对负服务的改善作为农业生态系统的生态功能。 -->
功能评价指标的设置在各个文献之间差异很大,具有代表性的评价指标整理如表1所示。经济功能的评价主要有总量指标、单位面积指标、人均指标和占比指标四类设置方式。关于正面生态环境调节功能,一部分****采用特定用地类型的面积或所占比例作评价指标,如林地、草地、休耕地、湿地、稻田、池塘和农田中间的灌木篱墙等;另一部分****则基于生态系统服务理论,简单采用Costanza等[29]或谢高地等[30]给出的不同土地利用类型提供气候调节、水源涵养和土壤保持等生态系统服务的价值当量进行计算,或从生态系统服务的产生过程和机理出发基于模型或经验参数计算得到。负面生态环境影响的改善,主要采用措施性指标(措施的数量与强度)或结果性指标(改善的程度)进行评价。农业的社会功能中,食品安全可以通过供养的人口数量或食物与消费者之间的里程进行评价;就业功能可以从总量或占比两个角度设置指标;景观、休闲、科教和文化等服务可以用提供服务的条件如景观质量和可达性,或实际享受服务的人数和频率来评价。 Table 1 表1 表1文献中的农业多功能性评价指标汇总 Table 1Indicators for assessing agricultural multifunctionality in the literature
① 总量指标:农林牧渔产值,农业支出,农产品出口额,农业相关产业所缴税金[9] ② 单位面积指标:单位面积粮食产量和单位面积农产品总产值[18] ③ 人均指标:农业劳动生产率,土地综合生产率,农民人均纯收入,农产品人均占有量[13,14] ④ 占比指标:观光农业收入占所在县市总收入的比重[18],农业收入在家庭经营收入中的占比[9],农业总产值占区域GDP的比重[14],加工业占农业总产值的比重[13]
生态功能
生态环境 调节服务
农业生态系统提供的气候调节、噪声消减、废物处理、土壤保护、水源涵养等调节服务带给人的收益
① 生态用地面积指标:林地、草地、休耕地、稻田和池塘等的面积或比例[9,13,17],人均绿地面积[13,14] ② 农田的生态系统服务价值当量[14,20-22] ③ 基于模型或经验参数计算的农业生态系统服务数量:固碳释氧[15,23],净化大气[23],消纳废物[23],生物能源[18],土壤碳储存[24],水土保持[25,26]
生态环境 负面影响 的改善
减轻农业活动造成的面源污染、土壤流失、生境质量破坏或生物多样性退化等负面影响的收益
① 措施性指标:单位面积化肥和农药施用量[10,13,15,18],因减少化肥施用获得的补贴数量[17] ② 结果性指标:观察到野生动物的数量[17],调整耕作方式后河道水质的改善、鱼群的数量变化、碳排放减少量[24],耕地破碎度变化[15]
中国自改革开放以来进入了快速城镇化时期。根据《中国统计年鉴(2016)》[31]和世界银行WDI数据库[32],中国城镇化水平从1978年的17.9%持续提高至2015年的56.1%,先后超过了低收入国家平均水平、中等收入国家平均水平和世界平均水平,向偏高收入国家平均水平靠近(图2)。在政府的主导下,中国的城镇化以粗放的土地利用方式大规模、快速地推进[33]。快速城镇化从改变农业活动的条件和社会对农业功能的需求两个方面使都市区农业的多功能性发生变化(图3),具体分析如下。 显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT 图21978—2015年不同国家城镇化率的变化 -->Figure 2Urbanization level in different countries from 1978 to 2015 -->
显示原图|下载原图ZIP|生成PPT 图3城镇化对都市区农业多功能性的影响过程 -->Figure 3The influences process of urbanization on agricultural multifunctionality in metropolitan areas -->
农业模式的演变反映出农业多功能性的实际变化。传统城郊农业以小规模家庭经营的形式向城乡居民提供农副产品,并承担农民经济来源、就业保障、区域文化纽带等作用。面对城镇化带来的困境,都市区消极适应的农业模式呈现出向非农化过渡的特征,例如采用粗放耕作方式种植粮食作 物[45],或大量使用化肥农药、用耗竭地力的方式种植蔬菜等经济作物以换取短期收益,形成不断向远郊区撤退迁移的代耕菜农现象[46]。这种过渡性的农业模式为农民和代耕菜农创造经济收入,为从农村转移出来的劳动力提供就业机会,并在某种程度上保障了郊区农民和附近社区居民的粮食、蔬菜和蛋奶等食品的供应,而在带动区域经济发展、提升生态和景观质量等方面的功能十分有限。然而,也有相当数量的农业经营主体积极适应都市区快速城镇化带来的机遇和挑战,形成七类主要的多功能农业模式。其中,农家乐是农户自主适应的模式;农业产业化组织、农业科技园和农业主题观光园是由政府和企业推动的规模化经营模式;农业公园和生态涵养农业是由政府主导的以公共利益为出发点的农业模式;社区支持农业是由消费者推动的农业模式。基于相关文献,对其主要特征、功能和发展趋势概括如表2所示。 Table 2 表2 表2中国快速城镇化背景下都市区七类多功能农业模式的特征、功能及发展趋势 Table 2The characteristics, multifunctionality and trends of the seven types of multifunctional agricultural systems in metropolitan areas under rapid urbanization in China
中国快速城镇化背景下,农业生产条件、社会需求和不同农业功能之间权衡关系所发生的变化促使都市区农业向兼具经济功能、社会功能和生态功能的综合性多功能农业系统转变。与拉美、非洲等中低收入国家都市农业以弱势群体生存保障功能为主[64,65]不同,中国都市区农业的主要功能已转向景观、休闲、生态环境调节和高品质食品的供给等方面,逐渐向西方发达国家的模式跟进[64]。多功能农业的概念从2000年后兴起成为国际上农业可持续发展的重要策略[8],此时发达国家的城镇化率已渐趋平稳(图2)。快速城镇化进程与发展多功能都市农业相重叠成为中国等新兴国家面临的独特机遇和挑战。相关方面认识的欠缺严重制约了中国都市区农业多功能发展的科学决策。常见各都市区盲目推进农业产业化,或跟风兴建农业科技园、观光园,投资农家乐或社区支持农业等,造成重复建设、缺乏竞争力,最后很多走向衰落[47,50]。 由于不同区域的中心城市在规模、区位和职能等多方面存在差异,都市区农业的多功能发展不会是千篇一律的过程。在居民消费水平、科研资源和政策工具等各方面具有优势的现代大都市区如北京、上海、广州和深圳等,各种农业模式都得到了发展且多功能性较强[41,51]。规模稍小的都市区如成都、重庆、武汉和西安等次之,但具有各自的特点[13,47,59]。对于还承担了全国粮食、蔬菜等农产品主产区角色的都市区来说,其功能特征又必然与依赖农产品自给和进口的都市区不同。目前多区域比较的研究[66]较少,未来需要加强跨区域研究,揭示都市区农业多功能性变化关键影响因子的区域差异,为决策者选择适合本区域发展的多功能农业模式提供参考依据。 彭建等[12]提出农业多功能性研究的四个重点方向,包括农业多功能性定量表征及空间化、农业多功能相互作用机理解析、农业多功能性动态演变及趋势预测和农业多功能性多层次关联。但目前的研究多集中于第一个方向,且难以形成被广泛接受的统一指标体系。究其原因,与中国的农业多功能性研究多从农业产业的角度进行[9,10,41,66,67]有关。评价对象多为不同行政单元或不同产业形态的农业多功能性,而国际上由OECD引领的基于农场或农业园区输入-输出模型[5,6,17]的农业多功能性研究思路在中国的实践很少。本文基于农业生态系统的要素、结构、产出和农业功能梳理出了都市区农业多功能性的概念框架,并概括了快速城镇化背景下都市区主要农业模式及其多功能性特征的演变,可以为农场/农园尺度(farm level)的农业多功能性评价和建模分析提供理论基础和操作框架。未来需基于该框架,将生物物理分析和社会经济分析有效结合起来探讨农业多功能性的形成和传递过程,为前面所述的四个重点研究方向起到积极的推动作用。关于都市区农业的多功能发展,需在农场/农园尺度上定量评估和比较中国都市区不同农业模式的多功能性及其变化,分析城镇化对都市区农业功能之间权衡与协同的影响,并与产业尺度的农业政策制定相连接,为都市区农业转型提供指导。 致谢:本文得到了北京大学城市与环境学院彭建副教授的指导,深表谢忱。 The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
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